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CLASS-BOOK  OF  BOTANY: 


BEING   OUTLINES   OF   THE 


STRUCTURE,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  CLASSIFICATION 


OP 


PLANT  S; 


WITH 


Jflora  of  %  ftnittb  State  anb  Canaba. 


BY 


ALPHONSO  iWOOD,    A.M. 

PRINCIPAL  OF  FEMALK  ACADEMY,  BROOKLYN. 


"  HE  SPAKE  OF  TREES,   FROM  THE    CEDAR  OF    LEBANOK  EVEN    tTNTO  THE    HYSSOP  THAT 
RPKIMGETH   OCT  OF  THE  WALL."—!  Kings,  lv.  33, 

"  CONSIDER  THE  LILIES  OF  THE  FIELD  —  EVES  SOLOMON,  IN  ALL  HIS  GLORY,  WAS  SOT 

ARRAYED  LIKE  OXE   OF  THESE."— Matthew,  Yl*.  28,  29. 


NEW  YOKK: 
PUBLISHED  BY  A.  S.  BARNES  &  BURR, 

TROY:  MOORE  &  NIMS. 

CINCINNATI:   RICKEY,  MALLORY  &  co. 

NEW  ORLEANS:   H.  n.  JTGINXIS.  —  MOBILE  :   RANDALL  &  WILLIAMS. 

1861. 


Entered,  accordiag  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  I860,  by 

A.   8.   BAENES    &    BUEE. 
la  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


:'i'U. 


Add'l 


GIFT 


ILECTEOTTPID  BT  PEI-ilED   BT 


SMITH    &    McDOUOAL,  QEORQEW      won 

,  N.  Y.  °,E  °  ^  La  S°  H. 


tfiULOGT 
LIBRARY 


PREFACE. 


THE  Class-Book  of  Botany  was  first  offered  to  the  student  in  1845. 
It  was  originally  prepared  with  immediate  reference  to  the  wants  of 
the  author's  own  pupils,  with  scarcely  a  hope  of  approval  from  the 
community  beyond.  The  event,  however,  proved  that  the  wants  of  his 
own  pupils  were  precisely  the  same  as  those  of  myriads  of  others ;  and 
the  use  of  the  book,  notwithstanding  its  numerous  imperfections,  soon 
became  general. 

The  lapse  of  fifteen  years  has  done  much  to  develop  not  only  the 
knowledge  of  our  native  Flora,  but  of  the  science  of  Botany  in  general ; 
and  materials  for  the  revision  of  our  whole  work  have  indefinitely 
accumulated.  In  this  revision,  which  seems  to  be  demanded  not  less 
by  the  growing  appreciation  of  scientific  studies  as  a  means  of  intel- 
lectual and  moral  discipline,  than  by  the  progress  of  the  science  itself, 
we  have  still  confined  ourselves  to  the  limits  of  a  single  volume,  and 
sternly  resolved  against  any  essential  enlargement,  except  such  as  the 
increased  territory  of  our  Flora  requires.  This  we  have  done  with 
direct  reference  to  the  convenience  and  the  means  of  the  thousands  of 
youths  who  will  still  enter  upon  this  delightful  pursuit,  and  make  their 
text-book  their  vade-mecum.  The  labor  expended  in  this  condensation 
will  be  appreciated  by  few,  and  those  few,  while  they  justify  the  mo- 
tives, will  regret  the  necessity. 

The  limit  of  our  Flora  in  this  new  series  has  been  much  extended. 
It  now  embraces  the  territory  lying  East  of  the  Mississippi  River  with 
the  exception  of  the  Southern  Peninsula  of  Florida,  and  South  of  the 
Great  Lakes^and  the  River  St.  Lawrence.  The  States  bordering  upon 
the  western  shores  of  the  Mississippi,  although  not  strictly  included, 
are  essentially  so,  as  well  as  those  provinces  of  Canada  upon  the  north- 
ern shore  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  This  Class-Book  is,  therefore,  now 
professedly  adapted  to  the  student's  use  from  Quebec  to  New  Orleans 
arid  from  St.  Pauls  to  St.  Augustine. 

The  southern  peninsula  of  Florida  is  neglected  in  consequence  of 
the  author's  inability  to  visit  that  region  hitherto.  During  his  extended 
tour  southward  in  1857,  the  Seminole  war  rendered  tho  route  to  the 

M869468 


IV  PREFACE. 

Everglades  unsafe,  or  at  least  undesirable.  The  species  omitted  are 
generally  unknown  northward  of  Key  West.  Students  at  Mecanopy, 
Ocala,  to  St.  Augustine,  will  scarcely  miss  them ;  but  should  they  do 
so,  they  will  confer  a  grateful  favor  by  contributing  specimens  of  such 
to  the  author. 

That  every  species  of  native  plant  in  this  extensive  region  is  accu- 
rately defined,  or  even  noticed,  we  cannot  presume  ;  yet  this  has  been 
our  aim ;  and  as  in  the  former  series,  so  here,  we  have  distrusted  every 
source  of  information  except  that  of  our  own  personal  inspection. 
Therefore,  into  nearly  every  section  of  this  territory,  from  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  the  Lakes  to  the  Gulf,  and  from  the  Sea-Coast  to  the 
Great  River,  the  author  has  made  repeated  excursioBS  in  delighted  con- 
verse with  the  vegetable  world. 

Together  with  the  plants  of  spontaneous  growth  which  constitute 
our  proper  Flora,  we  have  included  in  our  sketches  also  our  exotic 
Flora ;  that  is,  all  those  plants  which  seem  to  us  to  have  attained  a 
general  cultivation  in  this  country,  either  as  useful,  curious,  or  orna- 
mental. By  this  accession,  learners  in  the  city,  as  well  as  in  the  coun- 
try, may  be  supplied  with  subjects  for  illustration  and  for  practice  in 
botanical  analysis;  and  all  with  the  means  of  acquainting  themselves 
with  the  beautiful  tenants  of  their  own  fields,  gardens,  and  conserva- 
tories. 

From  the  multiplication  of  species  and  genera  we  have  studiously 
refrained,  believing  that  our  books  already  contain  more  than  Nature 
will  warrant.  In  the  case  of  any  doubtful  specimen,  which  might  have 
served  as  the  basis  of  a  new  species,  or  possibly  genus,  (had  this  been 
our  aim),  we  have  always  inclined  rather  to  the  extension  of  the  limits 
of  some  kindred  group  for  its  reception,  having  less  apprehension  of 
error  in  this  direction  than  in  the  opposite,  with  all  due  regard  for  the 
permanence  of  true  species.  The  same  principle  has  compelled  us  to 
disallow  the  claims  of  many  reputed  species  of  the  best  authors. 

In  the  sequence  of  the  Natural  Orders,  we  have,  in  common  with  all 
recent  American  authors,  mainly  adopted  the  arrangement  of  De  Can- 
dolle, — an  arrangement  seen,  in  part,  in  the  '  Flora  of  the  State  of  New 
York,'  by  Dr.  Torrey.  It  commences  with  those  Orders  supposed  to 
be  of  the  higher  rank  in  organization,  and  proceeds  gradually  to  the 
lower,  regarding  the-  completeness  of  the  flower  and  the  distinctness  of 
its  parts  as  the  general  criterion  of  rank. 

Tables  of  analysis  by  the  dichotomal  method  were  first  in  the  Cl ass- 
Book  applied  to  the  genera  of  plants,  and  introduced  into  general  use. 
They  are  now  regarded  as  indispensable,  and  have  been  adopted  into 
their  Floras  by  nearly  every  subsequent  author.  In  the  present  new 


PRE  FACE.  T 

series,  we  have  greatly  modified,  extended,  and  improved  this  system, 
adapting  it  to  the  analysis  of  Species  as  well  as  of  Orders  and  Genera. 
By  means  of  this  addition,  our  Flora  is  now  adapted  to  class  exercises 
in  analysis  throughout,  from  the  Grand  division  to  the  Species — an  im- 
improvement  which  will  be  duly  appreciated  by  the  practical  teacher. 

An  analytical  Key  to  the  Orders,  mainly  artificial,  more  simple  than 
any  hitherto  constructed  by  us,  founded,  as  in  the  previous  edition, 
almost  solely  upon  characters  taken  from  the  flowers  and  leaves  (not 
fruit),  will  readily  conduct  the  student  to  that  Order  where  any  given 
flowering  specimen  may  belong.  Next,  under  the  Order,  a  table  of  the 
utmost  simplicity,  analyzes  the  Genera,  mostly  in  such  a  way  as  to  do 
but  little  violence  to  their  natural  affinities.  Lastly,  under  the  Genus 
(when  large  enough  to  require  it)  another  table  conducts  to  the  species 
in  groups  of  twos  or  threes,  which  groups  are  instantly  resolved  by  a 
brief  diagnosis  in  italics  catching  the  eye  in  some  part  of  the  descrip- 
tion which  follows. 

The  limited  space  allowed  us  in  the  Flora  compels  us  to  use  very 
sparingly  illustrative  engravings  in  this  part  of  our  work,  which  occa- 
sions us  less  regret  considering  the  copiousness  of  illustration  in  the 
scientific  treatise  in  the  former  part.  Those  engravings  are  designed 
partly  with  reference  to  the  Flora,  where  frequent  references  will  be 
found.  The  few  which  we  have  adopted  in  the  Flora,  are  prepared 
with  reference  to  the  deficiencies  of  the  former  part.  In  other  words 
those  which  have  no  illustrative  figure  in  the  former  treatise  are  gen- 
e-rally furnished  with  one  or  more  in  the  Flora.  Throughout  the  work, 
these  are  mostly  from  original  sketches  and  drawings  on  wood  by  the 
author's  own  hand.  Others  are  copied  from  Lindley,  Henfrey,  Peyer,  &c. 

In  addition  to  those  colaborers  in  Botany,  whose  invaluable  aid  is 
acknowledged  in  former  editions,  namely  Dr.  Edward  E.  Phelps,  Dr. 
James  AV.  Bobbins,  Dr.  Joseph  Barratt,  Dr.  Albert  G.  Skinner,  Mr.  I. 
A.  Lapham,  Dr.  Truman  Ricard,  Dr.  H.  P.  Sartwell,  Dr.  John  Plum- 
mer,  Dr.  S.  B.  Mead,  Mr.  S.  S.  Olney,  &c.,  we  have  now  to  mention 
with  grateful  acknowledgments  other  names  of  equal  merit. 

Dr.  Josiah  llale  of  Alexandria,  La.,  has  sent  us  a  suit  of  specimens, 
well  nigh  representing  the  entire  Flora  of  that  State. 

Dr.  A.  W.  Chapman  of  Apalachicola,  Fla.,  presented  us  with  many 
of  the  more  rare  plants  of  Florida,  on  the  occasion  of  our  recent  visit 
to  his  own  familiar  walks. 

Dr.  H.  A.  Mettauer  of  Macon,  Ga.,  has  made  contributions  of  great 
value  from  that  district,  and  from  the  vicinity  of  Tallahasse  and  St. 
Marks,  Fla.,  with  many  critical  notices  and  observations  on  the  Flora  of 
those  States. 


VI  PREFACE. 

Prof.  William  T.  Feay,  M.D.,  and  Prof.  Thomas  G.  Pond,  both  of 
Savannah,  Ga.,  have  sent  almost  the  entire  Flora  of  that  State,  with 
copious  original  notes  and  observations,  such  as  result  only  from  the 
most  extensive  and  accurate  investigation. 

Miss  Sarah  Keen  of  Bainbridge,  Ga.  (now  of  Mariana,  Fla.),  has  also 
sent  an  herbarium  of  beautiful  specimens  prepared  by  her  own  and  her 
sister's  hands.  To  her,  as  well  as  to  the  gentlemen  last  mentioned,  the 
author  is  also  indebted  for  every  kind  hospitality  and  encouragement 
during  a  protracted  herborizing  tour  along  our  southern  coasts. 

Mr.  William  Wright  of  Bainbridge,  and  Prof.  N.  H.  Stuart  of  Quincy, 
Florida  (since  deceased),  also  contributed  to  the  consummation  of  our 
work  by  many  facilities  afforded  us  in  our  laborious  researches  in  their 
respective  precincts,  and  by  the  shelter  of  their  hospitable  mansions. 

To  Rev.  Dr.  Curtis  of  Hillsborougli,  N.  C.,  and  to  Rev.  Dr.  Bach- 
man  of  Charleston,  S.  C.,  we  are  indebted  for  the  free  use  of  their  very 
complete  herbaria,  during  our  sojourn  in  their  respective  cities ;  and 
Mr.  S.  B.  Buckley,  recently  of  Yellow  Springs,  Ohio,  has  afforded  us 
similar  facilities  through  his  rich  collection. 

Dr.  Cousens  generously  supplied  us  with  the  plants  of  the  State  of 
Iowa.  His  name  often  appears  in  our  pages. 

Dr.  George  Engelmann,  of  St.  Louis,  has  also  favored  us  with  the 
free  use  of  his  admirable  monograph  of  the  genus  Cuscuta,  and  with 
many  important  notes  in  MS.  on  other  difficult  genera  in  our  Flora, 
especially  on  the  Euphorbiacese.  Our  entire  collection  of  specimens 
belonging  to  this  Order  was,  by  his  kind  permission,  submitted  to  his 
inspection  and  determination. 

The  Rev.  Chester  Dewey,  D.D.,  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  the  venerable 
pioneer  in  American  Cartography,  lias  placed  us  and  our  readers  un- 
der renewed  obligations  by  additional  contributions  to  the  genus  Ca- 
rex,  rendering  it  complete  for  the  extended  territory  of  our  present 
Flora. 

Communications  containing  specimens,  critical  notices  or  corrections, 
or  soliciting  information,  will  always,  as  heretofore,  be  acceptable. 

BROOKLYN  FEMALE  ACADEMY,  Dec.,  1, 1860. 


CONTENTS. 


PREFACE.  . . , 3 

INTRODUCTION 9 

CHAPTER  I. — THE  LEADING  PRINCIPLES  OF  SCIENCE; — MENTAL  AND  MORAL 

DISCIPLINE  ITS  AIM  AND  END 9 

CHAPTER  II. — THE  DEPARTMENTS  OF  BOTANY 12 

CHAPTER  III. — APPARATUS. — METHODS  OF  STUDY 15 

PART  FIRST. — STRUCTURAL  BOTANY,  OR  ORGANOGI:APHY 17 

CHAPTER  I. — PRIMARY  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  VEGETABLE  KINGDOM 17 

CHAPTER  II.— THE  TERM  OF  PLANT  LIFE 19 

CHAPTER  III. — THE  PILENOGAMIA  ; — How  DEVELOPED 22 

CHAPTER  IV. — THE  BOOT,  OR  DESCENDING  Axis 24 

CHAPTER  V. — THE  STEM,  OR  ASCENDING  Axis 30 

CHAPTER  VI. — THE  LEAF-BUD. — VERNATION 41 

CHAPTER  VII. — THE  LEAF 4G 

§  PHYLLOTAXY,  OR  LEAF- ARRANGEMENT 4fi 

§  MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  LEAF » 50 

§  OF  THE  STIPULES 51 

§  OF  THE  VEINS 52 

§  FORM  OF  THE  LEAF,  OR  FIGURE 54 

§  MARGIN 59 

§  APEX 59 

§  COMPOUND  LEAVES GO 

CHAPTER  VIII. — TRANSFORMATIONS  OF  THE  LEAF 63 

CHAPTER  IX. — INFLORESCENCE G7 

§  FLOWERING 75 

CHAPTER  X. — MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  FLOWER 77 

§  ESTIVATION* 79 

§  THE  FLOB.VL  ORGANS 81 

§  THE  PLAN  OF  THE  FLOWER 83 

CHAPTER  XL — THE  FLORAL  ENVELOPES. — PERIANTH 91 

CHAPTER  XII.— THE  ESSENTIAL  ORGANS *. 99 

§  THE  STAMENS.  OR  ANDRCECIUM 99 

§  THE  PISTILS,  OR  GYNCECIUM 104 

§  THE  OVULES 1  OS 


Viii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XHL— THE  FRUIT  ;— PERICARP 110 

CHAPTER  XIV. — THE  FRUIT  ; — SEED 117 

§  GERMINATION 121 

CHAPTER  XV.— THE  CRYPTOGAMIA.— ORGANS 124 

JPART  SECOND. — PHYSIOLOGICAL  BOTANY 130 

CHAPTER  I. — THE  VEGETABLE  CELL 130 

CHAPTER  II. — THE  TISSUES .' 134 

CHAPTER  III. — THE  EPIDERMAL  SYSTEM  137 

CHAPTER  IV. — THE  LIGNEOUS  SYSTEM 139 

§  STRUCTURE  OP  LEAVES 145 

CHAPTER  V. — OP  VEGETATION,  OR  THE  PHYSIOLOGY  OP  PLANT  LIFE 146 

§  FERTILIZATION 148 

§  RIPENING  OF  FRUITS 151 

CHAPTER  VI. — OF  ABSORPTION 152 

§  CIRCULATION 153 

§  TRANSPIRATION 156 

§  RESPIRATION 15G 

CHAPTER  VII. — REVIEW  OF  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  NUTRITION 158 

PART  TnraD. — SYSTEMATIC  BOTANY 164 

CHAPTER  I. — OF  THE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PLANTS 1 64 

CHAPTER  II. — OF  THE  ARTIFICIAL  SYSTEM 16G 

CHAPTER  III. — OF  THE  NATURAL  SYSTEM 169 

CHAPTER  IV. — NOMENCLATURE. — ANALYSIS 175 

§  INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 180 

§  KEY  ANALYTICAL  TO  THE  NATURAL  ORDERS 191 

PART  FOURTH. — DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY  ; — THE  FLORA 1 99 

ORDERS  OF  THE  POLYPETAL^E 200 

ORDERS  OF  THE  GAMOPETAL.E 393 

ORDERS  OF  THE  APETAL^: 601 

ORDERS  OF  THE  CONOIDEJS 659 

ORDERS  OF  THE  SPADICIFLORJ: 666 

ORDERS  OF  THE  FLORTDEJS. 676 

ORDERS  OF  THE  GRAMINOIDEJG 731 

ORDERS  OF  THE  CRYPTOGAMIA 810 


INTRODUCTION 


CHAPTER    I. 

LEADING    PRINCIPLES    OF    SCIENCE  I MENTAL    AND    MORAL    DISCIPLINE 

ITS    AIM   AND    END. 

1.  PLANTS  AS  RELATED  TO  MAN.     The  vegetable  kingdom  maintains  towards 
man  several  important  relations.     Besides  its  obvious  utility  us  the  source  of  his 
food,  shelter,  clothing  and  medicine,  it  furnishes  an  exhaustless  field  for  interesting 
and  disciplinary  study. 

2.  PROOF  THAT  NATURE  is  RELATED  TO  MIND.    This  remark  is  commonplace. 
But  the  fact  stated  is  neither  a  necessity  nor  accident.     Since  the  phenomena  of 
Nature  are  ordained  subject  to  the  cognizance  of  the  human  understanding  while 
yet  their  depths  are  unfathomable  by  it,  it  is  evident  that  God  made  them  for  each 
other.     It  is  certainly  conceivable  that  Ho  might  have  ordained  otherwise. 

3.  ILLUSTRATION.    The  phenomena  of  vegetation,  or  of  nature  in  general,  might 
have  been  all  simple   and  uniform,  thus  awakening'  no  curiosity,  presenting  no 
motive  for  study.     Or  on  the  other  hand,  they  might  have  involved  plans  so  intri- 
cate as  to  defy  all  efforts  of  the  mind  in  their  investigation.    In  this  case,  as  in  the 
former,  the  mind  and  nature  would  have  remained  for  ever  estranged. 

4.  THE  STUDY  OF  NATURE    SUCCESSFUL.      But  an  intermediate  course  hath 
seemed  good  to  an  All-wise  and  Beneficent  Creator.    The  works  of  His  Hand  aro 
commensurate  with  the  powers  of  the  understanding.     "We  study  them  not  in  vain. 
Step  by  step  His  plans  are  unfolded ;  and  research,  although  never  reaching  the 
goal,  yet  never  wearies,  nor  fails  of  its  appropriate  reward. 

5. — PLEASURABLE.  Hence  the  study  of  nature,  through  this  beautifully  adjusted 
relation,  becomes  a  source  of  the  purest  pleasure,  being  ever  accompanied  by  fresh 
discoveries  of  truth  in  the  plans  and  operations  of  a  sublime  Intelligence. 

6. — DISCIPLINARY.  But  a  higher  pyrpose  than  present  pleasure  is  accomplished 
by  this  means,  namely,  discipline.  Entering:  life  as  a  mere  germ,  the  soul  expands 
into  intelligence  and  virtue  through  the  teachings  of  surrounding  objects  and  influ- 
ences. In  this  good  work  the  beauty,  purity  and  wisdom  displayed  in  the  vegeta- 
ble world  bear  a  full  share.  These  invite  to  investigation  ;  and  their  tendency  is  to 
impress  upon  their  votaries  the  characteristics  of  their  own  sincerity  and  loveliness. 

7.  CREATIVE  WISDOM  NEVER  WORKS  IN  VAIN,  nor  merely  in  sport.  Even  the 
flying  cloud  which  now  passes  over  the.  sun  has  its  mission ;  the  forms  which  it 
assumes,  and  the  colors,  were  each  necessary  and  divinely  appointed  for  that  special 
purpose.  The  hills  and  valleys,  which  seem  scattered  in  accidental  confusion,  have 
received  each  their  contour  and  position  by  design,  according  to  the  ends  foreseen. 
Consequently,  each  stone  or  mineral  composing  these  hills  was  also  the  work  of 
special  design,  as  to  its  magnitude,  form  and  place. 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

8.  No  ACCIDENT  OR  CAPRICE  IN  NATURE.  Much  more  in  the  living  kingdoms 
bf  nature  may  we  look  for  au  adequate  purpose  and  end  accomplished  by  every 
movement  and  in  every  creature  of  the  Divine  hand.  Each  species  is  created  aud 
sustained  to  answer  some  worthy  end  in  the  vast  plan ;  and  hence  no  individual, 
animal  or  plant  is  to  be  regarded  in  science  as  insignificant,  inasmuch  as  the  indi- 
vidual constitutes  the  species.  Nor  is  accident  or  caprice  to  be  found  in  the  form- of 
the  leaf  or  the  color  of  the  flower.  There  is  for  each  a  special  reason  or  adaptation 
worthy  of  unerring  wisdom. 

L  9.  OBJECT  OF  NATURAL  SCIENCE.  In  the  study  of  nature  we  are  therefore 
Concerned  in  reasons  and  ends  as  well  as  in  forms  and  appearances.  That  investi- 
gation which  ceases  pontented  with  the  latter  only  is  peurile.  It  may  amuse,  but 
can  scarcely  instruct,  and  can  never  conduct  to  that  purest  source  of  the  student's 
enjoyment,  namely,  the  recognition  of  Intelligence  by  intelligence. 

10.  DESIGN,    A  SETTLED  PRINCIPLE  IN   SCIENCE.      The  end  or  purpose,  it  is 
true,  is  not  always  as  easily  discerned  as  the  form  and  fashion  are.   In  a  thousand  in- 
stances the  end  is  yet  inscrutable.     Nevertheless  it  is  now  a  settled  principle  of 
science  that  there  is  an  end — a  purpose — a  reason,  for  every  form  which  we  contem- 
plate ;  and  tho  adaptation  to  that  end  is  as  beautiful  as  the  form  itself.    That  the 
tendril  of  the  vine  and  tho  runner  of  the  strawberry  were  happily  adapted  to  a 
spt-cial  purpose  is  readily  admitted ;  for  that  purpose  is  immediate  and  obvious  to 
all.     Let  us  not  then  say  that  the  spine,  the  stipule,  or  the  varying  tints  of  the  rose, 
were  made  merely  in  caprice,  their  uses  being  less  obvious  in  the  present  state  of 
our  knowledge. 

11.  DESIGN,  AS  DISTINGUISHED  FROM  "TYPICAL  FORMS."    In  addition  to  this 
sequence  of  cause  and  effect  in  nature,  disclosing  the  Infinite  Designer  in  all 
things,  as  early  taught  by  Paley  in  his  "  Natural  Theology,"  another  class  of  prin- 
ciples more  recently  developed  are  shown  by  the  author  of  "  Typical  Forms" 
(McCosn),  to  indicate  with  a  still  clearer  light  the  thoughts  of  the  Omniscient  Mind 
in  the  operations  of  nature.     A  single  observation  often  suffices  for  the  discovery  of 
design,  as  in  the  down  of  the  thistle,  by  means  of  which  the  seed  is  wafted  on  the 
winds  to  flourish  in  distant  lands.     But  a  typical  form  or  plan  requires  a  long  series 
of  observations  for  its  discernment, 

12.  TYPICAL  FORMS  ILLUSTRATED.      The  scientific  world  were  slow  to  learn 
that  the  numerous  organs  of  plants  so  diversified  in  form  and  use  are  all  modeled 
from  a  single  type,  one  radical  form,  and  that  form,  the  kaf! 

13.  EESULTS.     This  interesting  doctrine,  now  universally  admitted,  sheds  a  new 
light  upon  nature,  making  it  all  luminous  with  the  Divine  Presence.     It  brings  the 
operations  of  the  Great  Architect  almost  within  the  grasp  of  human  intelligence, 
revealing  the  conceptions  which  occupied  His  mind  before  they  were  embodied  in 
actual  existence  by  His  word. 

14.  GRADUATED   FORMS.      Again,  by  continued  observation,  the  principle  of 
graduated  forms,  allied  to  the  last,  appeared  as  another  grand  characteristic  of  na- 
ture.    This  principle  implies  that  while  natural  objects  vary  to  wide  and  seemingly 
irreconcilable  extremes,  their  differences  are  never  abrupt,  but  they  pass  by  insen- 
sible gradations  and  shades  from  species  to  species  in  a  continuous  scries. 

15.  ILLUSTRATION.     Thus  in  magnitude,  although  the  tiny  moss  is  far  removed 
from  the  gigantic  oak,  yet  a  series  connects  them  representing  every  imaginable  in- 
termediate grade  in  size.     So  in  number,  from  the  one-stamened  saltwort  to  the 
hundred-stamened  rose,  there  is  a  connecting  series,  representing  every  intervening 
number.     Moreover,  in  form  and  figure,  we  pass  from  the  thread-leafed  pine  to  the 
broad-leafed  poplar  through  a  series  of  every  intermediate  degree  of  leaf-expansion-, 


LEADING    PRINCIPLES   OF    SCIENCE.  11 

and  from  the  regular-flowered  crowfoot  to  the  distorted  monks-hood  by  a  series 
graduated  in  like  manner. 

16.  NATURA  NON  SALTUS  FACIT,  said  Linnaeus,  in  evident  allusion  to  this  bean- 
tiful  principle,  which  will  constitute  one  of  the  most  interesting  themes  of  botanical 
studv. 

17.  ACCOMODATED  FORMS  or  organs  is  a  phrase  applied  to  another  principle 
in  the  Divine  plan,  the  reverse  of  the  first.     This  principle  appears  in  the  adaptation 
of  different  organs  hi  different  species  to  one  common  use ;  of  which  there  are  many 
familiar 

18.  ExAifPLES.     Thus,  the  slender  vine  requires  support.     Now  it  throws  out  a 
tendril  for  this  very  purpose,  grasping  whatever  object  it  may  reach,  as  in  the  grape. 
Again,  the  prolonged  leaf-stalk  answers  the  same  end,  as  in  Clematis.     Again,  tho 
supple  stem  itself,  by  its  own  coils  supports  itself,  as  in  the  hop ;  and,  lastly,  ad- 
ventitious rootlets  in  the  ivy. 

19.  ANOTHER  ILLUSTRATION.      Reproduction  is  the  general  office  of  the  seed ; 
but  this  end  is  also  accomplished,  in  different  species,  by  nearly  every  other  organ, 
by  buds,  bulblets,  bjulbs,  tubers,  cuttings,  scions,  and  even  leaves. 

20.  ANOTHER.     This  principle  is  also  traced  hi  the  nutritious  deposits  of  plants, 
which  are  generally  made  in  the  fruit ;  but  often  tho  root  serves  as  the  reservoir  in- 
Ht  ;>a  1.  or  even  the  stem.     And  in  caso  of  the  fruit,  the  rich  deposit  is  now  found  in 
the  pericarp  of  the  peach,  tho  calyx  of  the  apple,  tho  receptacle  of  the  strawberry, 
the  cotyledons  of  the  almond,  tho  bracts,  flower-stalks,  &c.,  of  tho  pine-apple.   Thus 
God's  boundless  resources  of  skill  can  accomplish  either  one  purpose  in  a  thousand 
different  ways,  or  a  thousand  different  purposes  by  a  single  organ. 

21.  ARRESTED  FORMS.      This  principle,  demanding  a  wider  range  of  generaliza- 
tion than  either  of  the  foregoing,  we  state  rather  as  a  hypothesis,  that  the  student 
may  hereafter  test  its  probability  by  his  own  observations.     The  flowering  plants 
which  clothe  the  earth  hi  such  numbers,  constituting  the  apparent  vegetable  world, 
are  hi  truth  but  a  minor  part  of  it  in  respect  to  numbers.     Numerous  tribes,  of  lower 
rank,  embracing  thousands  of  species,  ro^cli  far  down  the  scale,  beyond  the  utmost 
limits  of  the  microscope.     Now  a  principle  of  analogy  seems  to  pervade  these  ranks, 
called  the  principle  of  arrested  forma,  binding  all  together  in  one  consistent  whole, 
proving  that  for  the  vast  realm  of  vegetation  there  was  but  one  plan  and  one  origin. 

22.  THE  HYPOTHESIS  STATED.     The  successive  tribes  of  vegetation,  beginning 
with  the  lowest,  have  each  their  type  or  analogue  hi  the  successive  stages  of  em- 
bryonic growth  in  the  highest  tribe. 

23.  MORE  EXPLICITLY  :   tho,  flowering  plant,  hi  the  course  of  its  growth   from 
the  pollen  grain  to  the  completed  embryo,  passes  necessarily  through  a  series  of 
transient  forms.     Now,  suppose  the  development  of  the  plant  arrested  at  each  of 
these  stages,  so  that  these  transient  forms  become  permanent,  we  should  have  a 
series  of  organisms  analogous  to  the  various  tribes  of  Flowerless  Plants ;  the  Pro- 
tococcus,  e.  g.,  an  arrested  pollen  grain ;  the  Oscillaria,  an  arrested  pollen  tube ;  and 
so  on  up  to  the  Marsillea,  whose  organization  answers  to  that  of  the  full-formed 
embryo  of  the  flowering  plant.     Thus  we  might  truly  say  of  the  lower  plants  that 
they  are  the  arrested  forms  of  the  higher. 

24.  INDIVIDUALITY  OF  THE  PLANT.     The  plant  is  both  material  and  immaterial. 
Its  form  and  substance  is  the  material,  its  life  the  immaterial     The  material  com- 
mences existence  as  a  single  cell,  and  is  ever  changing.      The  immaterial  gives  to 
that  cell  its  individuality,  and  fixes  inevitably  its  law  of  development,  so  that  it 
must  grow  up  to  become  such  a  plant  as  it  is,  and  by  no  possibility  any  other. 

25.  ILLUSTRATION.    The  embryonic  cell  of  a  rose  may  not  differ  materially,  in  tho 


1 2  INTRODUCTION. 

least,  from  that  of  the  grape :  but  the  individuality  of  each  is  widely  different.  This 
principle  in  the  one  will  make  it  a  rose ;  in  the  other,  a  grape.  Individuality  can 
not  be  predicated  of  a  stone. 

26.  LIFE  AND  DEATH  ARE  EQUALLY  PREDICATED  OP  THE  PLANT.    The  latter  fol- 
lows close  upon  the  former,  with  unequal,  inevitable  step,  and  soon  disputes  posses- 
sion in  the  same  living  fabric.     The  plant  both  lives  and  dies  at  once.    Life  passes 
on  from  cell  to  cell,  and  in  the  parts  which  it  has  abandoned  dissolution  and  decay 
are  soon  manifest.     Thus  the  whole  existence  of  the  individual  is  a  contest     Life 
advances,  death  pursues,  and  ultimately  triumphs.     But  not  so  in  the  species.     Se- 
curely transferred  to  the  seed,  the  living  immaterial  plant  mocks  the  destroyer,  and 
begins  its  career  anew,  multiplied  a  hundred  fold. 

27.  THE  SEED  OP  THE  PLANT  is  ITS  REDEMPTION.     Through  this  appointment, 
the  conquest  of  death  is  apparent,  while  the  triumph  of  life  is  real.     In  the  "  grain 
of  mustard"  there  is  literally  a  faith — an  energy  which  will  raise  it  from  the  dust,  "  a 
tree."    Yet,  as  in  the  wheat  and  all  other  seed,  "  it  shall  not  be  quickened  except  it 
die."    Hence, 

28.  PLANTS  MAY  TEACH  us  LESSONS  IN  SACRED  THINGS.    "While  we  study  the 
facts  and  the  forms  of  the  vegetable  world,  we  should  also  aim  to  learn  the  purposes 
accomplished,  and  the  great  principles  adopted  in  its  creation.    "We  should  also  learn 
to  recognize  here  the  tokens  (too  long  overlooked)  which  declare  that  nature  sym- 
pathizes with  humanity  in  the  circumstances  of  the  Fall,  the  Redemption,  and  tho 
Life.     Such  study  alone  is  adapted  to  acquaint  us  with  the  thoughts  of  the  intelli- 
gent Creator,  and  to  discipline  aright  the  mind  which  was  created  in  His  image. 

29.  BOTANY  COMBINES  PLEASURE  WITH  IMPROVEMENT.    It  conducts  the  student 
into  the  fields  and  forests  amidst  the  verdure  of  spring  and  the  bloom  of  summer ; 
to  the  charming  retreats  of  Nature  in  her  wild  luxuriance,  or  where  she  patiently 
smiles  under  the  improving  hand  of  cultivation.     It  furnishes  him  with  vigorous 
exercise,  both  of  body  and  mind,  which  is  no  less  salutary  than  agreeable,  and  its 
subjects  of  investigation  are  all  such  as  are  adapted  to  please  the  eye,  refine  the 
taste,  and  improve  the  heart. 


CHAPTEK    II. 

THE  DEPARTMENTS  OF  THE  STUDY. 

30.  THREE    GREAT    DEPARTMENTS   IN   NATURE    are   universally  re- 
cognized, commonly  called  the  mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal  king- 
doms.    The  first  constitutes  the  Inorganic,  the  other  two  the  Organic 
World. 

31.  A  MINERAL  is  an  inorganic  mass  of  matter,  that  is,  without  dis- 
tinction of  parts  or  organs.     A  stone,  for  example,  may  be  broken  into 
any  number  of  fragments,  each  of  which  will  retain  all  the  essential 
characteristics  of  the  original  body,  so  that  each  fragment  will  still  be  a 
stone. 

32.  A  PLANT  is  an  organized  body,  endowed  with  vitality  but  not 
with  sensation,  composed  of  distinct  parts,  each  of  which  is  essential  to 


THE    DEPARTMENTS     OF    THE     STUDY. 


13 


the  completeness  of  its  being.  A  tulip  is  composed  of  organs  which 
may  be  separated  and  subdivided  indefinitely,  but  no  one  of  the  frag- 
ments alone  will  be  a  complete  plant. 

33.  ANIMALS,  like  plants,  are  organized  bodies  endowed  with  vitality, 
and  composed  of  distinct  parts,  no  one  of  which  is  complete  in  itself,  but 
they  are  elevated  above  either  plants  or  minerals  by  their  power  of  per- 
ception. 

34.  THESE  DISTINCTIONS,  long  since  suggested  by  Linnseus,  the  founder  of  botani- 
cal science,  are  perfectly  obvious  and  definite  in  the  higher  grades  of  the  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdoms.     But  in  descending  the  scale,  we  recognize  a  gradual  approach, 
in  both,  to  inorganic  matter,  and  consequently  to  each  other,  so  that  in  the  lowest 
forms  of  life  all  traces  of  organization  are  lost  to  our  perception,  and  the  three 
kingdoms   of  nature,    like 

converging  radii,  apparent- 
ly meet  and  blend  in  a  com- 
mon centre. 

35.  THE  POSITION  OF  THE 

PLANT-WORLD  IN  RANK  and 

office  is  intermediate.  While 
inferior  to  the  animal  in  re- 
spect to  perception  and  in- 
stinct, it  is  superior  to  the 
mineral  in  its  vitality.  In 
office  it  constitutes  the  food 
and  nourishment  of  the  ani- 
mal, the  vesture  and  orna- 
ment of  the  mineral  world, 
whence  alone  itself  is  fed. 
In  other  words,  plants  feed 
on  minerals,  animals  feed 

on  plants. 

FIGURE  1.    A  diagram  illustrating  these  views  of  the  three 

36.  PHYSICS    is    the  kingdoms  of  nature— how  related  to  each  other. 

general  name  of  the  science  which  treats  of  the  mineral  or  inorganic 
world. 

37.  ZOOLOGY  relates  to  the  animal  kingdom. 

38.  BOTANY  is  the  science  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.     It  includes 
the  knowledge  of  the  forms,  organs,    structure,  growth,  and  uses  of 
plants,  together  with  their  history  and  classification.     Its  several  de- 
partments correspond  to  the  various  subjects  to  which  they  relate.     Thus 

39.  STRUCTURAL  BOTANY,  or  Organography,  treats  of  the   special  or- 
gans of  plants  as  compared  with  each  other,  answering  to  Comparative 
Anatomy  in  the  science  of  Zoology.     Morphology  is  a  term  often  used 
in  a  similar  sense ;  but   it  especially  relates  to  the  mutual  or  typical 
transformations  which  the  organs  undergo  in  the  course  of  development. 

40.  ELEMENTARY  BOTANY  treats  of  the  elementary  tissues — the  or- 
ganic elements  out  of  which  the  vegetable  fabric  is  constructed. 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

41.  PHYSIOLOGICAL  BOTANY  is  that  department  which  relates  to  the 
vital  action  of  the  several  organs  and  tissues,  including  both  the  vital 
and  chemical  phenomena  in  the  germination,  growth,  and  reproduction 
of  plants.     It  has,  therefore,  a  direct  and  practical  bearing  upon  the 
labors  of  husbandry  in  the  propagation  and  culture  of  plants,  both  in 
the  garden  and  in  the  field. 

42.  SYSTEMATIC  BOTANY  arises  from  the  consideration  of  plants  in 
relation  to  each  other.     It  aims  to  arrange  and  classify  plants  into  groups 
and  families,  according  to  their  mutual  affinities  and  relative  rank,  so  as 
to  constitute  of  them  all  one  unbroken  series  or  system. 

43.  DESCRIPTIVE  BOTANY,  or  PHYTOLOGY,   is  the  art   of  expressing 
the  distinctive  characters  of  species  and  groups  of  plants  with  accuracy 
and  precision,  in  order  to  their  complete  recognition.     A  fora  is  a 
descriptive  work  of  this  kind,  embracing  the  plants  of  some  particular 
country  or  district. 

44.  BOTANICAL  NOMENCLATURE,  which  is  the  art  of  properly  apply- 
ing names  to  the  species  aud  groups,  is  intimately  associated  with  the 
above  department.      Terminology  relates  to  the  explanation  and  appli- 
cation of  botanical  terms  whereby  the  organs  of  plants,  with  their  nu- 
merous modifications,  arc  accurately   designated.     This  is,   therefore, 
inseparable  from  Structural  Botany. 

45.  ULTIMATE  AIJI  OP  BOTANY.     Finally,   in  its  extended  sense,  Botany  com- 
prehends also  the  knowledge  of  the  relations  of  plants  to  the  other  departments  of 
nature,  particularly  to  mankind.    The  ultimate  aim  of  its  researches  is  the  develop- 
ment of  the  boundless  resources  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  for  our  sustenance  and 
protection  as  well  as  education ;  for  the  healing  of  our  diseases  and  the  alleviation 
of  our  wants  and  woes.     This  branch  of  botanical  science  is  called 

46.  APPLIED  BOTANY.     It  includes  also  several  departments,  as  Medical  Botany, 
or  Pharmacy,  Agricultural  Botany,  or  Chemistry,  Pomology,  &c. 

47.  PLAN  OF  THE  WORK.     In  the  following  pages,  designed    as    a 
complete  although  compendious  treatise  for  the  special  convenience  of 
the  learner,  we  shall  commence  with  Structural  Botany,  whose  subjects 
(the  constituent  organs  of  plants)  are  conspicuous  and  most  readily  com- 
prehended. 

48.  SECONDLY,  the  cell  and  the  elementary  tissues  will  claim  our  at- 
tention.    THIRDLY,  we  shall  inquire  into  the  vital  activities  of  all  these 
organs,   and  endeavor  to   explain  the  phenomena   of   vegetable    life. 
FOURTHLY,  the  principles  of  vegetable  nutrition  which   constitute   the 
foundation  of  agricultural  science. 

49.  IN  THE  FIFTH  PLACE  we  shall  treat  of  Systematic  Botany,  the 
principles  of  arrangement  adopted  in  the  Natural  System,  and  the 
methods  of  Botanical  Analysis. 

50.  LASTLY,  the  Natural  Orders  will  be  defined,  and  illustrated  by 
our  flora,  both  native  and  cultivated. 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

51.  NOTWITHSTANDING  the  extreme  brevity  of  this  work,  the  author  believes 
that  no  principle  of  the  science  essential  to  a  liberal  course  hi  Botany  is  omitted. 
The  brevity  is  attained  by  a  studied  conciseness  of  expression,  and  by  the  omission 
of  all  needless  illustrations,  theoretical  views  and  wordy  discussions.  In  the  flora 
those  multitudinous  repetitions  which  are  liable  to  encumber  the  descriptions  of 
allied  groups  are  avoided,  without  the  sacrifice  of  minuteness  by  means  of  copious 
tables  of  analysis. 


CHAPTEK    III. 

APPARATU  S — M  ETHODS  OF  STUDY. 

52.  THE  PROPER  SEASON  FOR  THE  COMMENCEMENT  OP  THE  STUDY  of  Botany  in 
schools  is  in  late  whiter,  at  the  opening  of  the  first  session  or  term  after  New-Years. 
The  class  will  thus  be  prepared  before  hand  by  a  degree  of  acquaintance  with  first 
principles,  for  the  analysis  of  the  earliest  spring  flowers — the  sweet  Epigsea,  Anemone, 
Erigenia  or  spring  beauty,  of  the  North,  the  yellow  jessamine,  Chaptalia,  or  Cryso- 
gonum  of  the  South,  the  blood-root  and  violet  every  where. 

53.  SPECIMENS  of  leaves,  stems,  roots,  fruit,  flowers,  &c.,  in  unlimited  supply  are  re- 
quisite during  the  whole  course.   In  the  absence  of  the  living,  let  the  dried  specimens 
of  the  herbarium  be  consulted.     Crayon  sketches  upon  the  black-board,  if  truthful, 
are  alwavs  good  for  displaying  minute  or  obscure  forms.     In  the  city,  classes  in 
Botany  may  employ,  at  small  expense,  a  collector  to  supply  them  daily  with  fresh 
specimens  from  the  country.     Moreover,  the  gardens  and  conservatories  will  furnish 
to  such  an  abundant  supply  of  cultivated  species  for  study  and  analysis,  with  almost 
equal  advantage  ;  since  the  present  work  embraces,  together  with  the  native  flora, 
all  exotics  which  are  in  any  degree  common  in  cultivation. 

54.  AN  HERBARIUM  (h.  s.,  hortus  siccus,  dry  garden),  is  a  collection  of  botanic 
specimens,  artificially  dried,  protected  in  papers  and  systematically  arranged.     Her- 
baria are  useful  in  many  ivays ;  (a.)  for  preserving  the  knowledge  of  rare,  or  inacces- 
sible, or  lost  species  ;  (&.)  for  exchanges,  enabling  one  to  possess  the  flora  of  other 
countries ;  (c.)  for  refreshing  one's  memory  of  early  scenes  and  studies ;  (d.)  for  aid- 
ing in  more  exact  researches  at  leisure ;  (e.)  for  the  comparison  of  species    with 
species,  genus  with  genus,  &c. 

55.  FOR  COLLECTING  BOTANIC  SPECIMENS,  a  strong  knife  for  digging  and  cutting  is 
needed,  and  a  close  tin  box  eighteen  inches  in  length,  of  a  portable  form.     Enclosed 
in  such  a  box,  with  a  little  moisture,  specimens  will  remain  fresh  for  a  week. 

56.  SPECIMENS  FOR  THE  HERBARIUM  should   represent  the  leaves,  flowers  and 
fruit,  and,  if  herbaceous,  the  root  also.     Much  care  is  requisite  iu  so  drying  them  as 
to  preserve  the  natural  appearance,  form  and  color.     The  true  secret  of  this  art  con- 
sists in  extracting  the  moisture  from  them  by  pressure  in  an   abundance  of  dry. 
bibulous  paper,  before  decomposition  can  take  place. 

57.  THE  DRYING  PRESS,  to  be  most  efficient  and  convenient,  should  consist  of  a 
dozen  quires  of  ordinary  blotting  paper,  at  least  11  x  14  inches,  two  sheets  of  wire 
gauze,  (same  size)  as  covers,   stiffened  by  folded  edges,  and  three  or  four  leather 
straps  a  yard  in  length,  with  buckles.    "When  in  use  suspend  it  in  the  wind  and  sun- 
shine.     In  such  a  press,  the  specimens  dry  well  in  fair  weather  without  once 
changing.     If  boards  be  used  for  covers  instead  of  wire-gauze,  the  papers  must  be 
changed  and  dried  daily. 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

58.  SUCCULENT  PLANTS  may  be  immersed  in  boiling  water  before  pressing,  to 
hasten  their  desiccation. 

59.  THE  LENS,  either  single,  double,  or  triple,  is  almost  indispensable  in  the  or- 
dinary pursuits  of  Morphology  or  Phy tography.     In  viewing  minute  flowers  or  parts 
of  flowers  the  use  of  the  lens  can  not  be  too  highly  appreciated.     For  dissection 
with  the  lens,  a  needle  inserted  in  a  handle,  a  penknife  and  tweezers  are  required. 
The  dried  flowers  of  the  herbarium  need  to  be  thrown  into  boiling  water  before 
dissection. 

60.  THE  COMPOUND  MICROSCOPE  is  undoubtedly  a  higher  aid  in  scientific  inves- 
tigation than  any  other  instrument  of  human  invention.     It  is  like  the  bestowment 
of  a  new  sense,  or  the  opening  of  a  new  world.     Through  this,  almost  solely,  all 
our  knowledge  of  the  cells,  the  tissues,  growth,  fertilization,  &c.,  is  derived.    The 
skillful  use  of  this  noble  instrument  is  itself  an  art  which  it  is  no  part  of  our  plan 
to  explain.    For  such  information  the  student  is  referred  to  the  works  of  Carpenter 
and  Quekett. 

61.  ON  THE  PREPARATION  OP  BOTANICAL  SUBJECTS  for  examination  we  remark 
briefly.     The  field  of  view  is  necessarily  small,  and  only  minute  portions  of  objects 
can  be  seen  at  oace.     The  parts  of  it  are  to  be  brought  under  inspection  success- 
ively by  the  movements  of  the  stage. 

62.  THE  TISSUES  OP  LEAVES,  &c.,  are  best  seen  by  transmitted  light.      They  are 
to  be  divided  by  the  razor  or  scalpel  into  extremely  thin  parings  or  cuttings.     Such 
cuttings  may  be  made  by  holding  the  leaf  between  the  two  halves  of  a  split  cork. 
They  are  then  made  wet  and  viewed  upon  glass.     The  stomata  are  best  seen  in  the 
epidermis  stripped  off;  but  in  the  sorrel  leaf  (Oxalis  Violacea)  they  appejir  beauti- 
fully distinct  (§678,  Fig.  585,)  upon  the  entire  leaf. 

63.  WOODY  TISSUES,  &c.,  may  be  viewed  either  as  opaque  or  transparent.     Sec- 
tions and  cuttings  should  be  made  in  all  directions,  and  attached  to  the  glass  by 
water,  white  of  egg,  Canada  balsam.     To  obtain  the  elementary  cells  separately 
for  inspection,  the  fragment  of  wood  may  be  macerated  in  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid 
added  to  a  grain  of  chlorate  of  potassa.     Softer  structures  may  be  macerated  sim- 
ply in  boiling  water. 

64.  CERTAIN  REAGENTS  are  applied  to  the  softer  and  more  recent  tissues  to  ef- 
fect such  changes  in  the  cell  contents,  of  either  color  or  form,  as  shall  render  them 
visible.    Thus  sulphuric  acid  coagulates  the  primordial  utricle  (§  639) ;  a  solution 
of  iodine  turns  it  blue  j  sugar  and  nitric  acid  change  it  to  red. 


PART    FIRST. 

STRUCTURAL    BOTANY;  OR,  OBGAHOGBAPHY. 


CHAPTER    I. 

PRIMARY   DIVISIONS   OF   THE   VEGETABLE   KINGDOM. 
65.    TWO    NATURAL  GRAND   DIVISIONS    OF    THE  VEGETABLE    KlNGDOM 

have  long  been  recognized  by  botanists,  viz.,  the  Phamogamia  or 
Flowering  Plants f,  the  Cryptogamia,  or  Flowerless  Plants.  Besides  the 
obvious  distinction  made  by  the  presence  and  absence  of  the  flower, 


2,  Rose  (flowers  double) — an  Exogen.    3,  Lily — an  Endorren.    4,  Fern — an  acrogenoos 
Cryptogam.    5,  Lichen— a  thallogenous^Cryptogam. 


18  PRIMARY    DIVISIONS    OF   THE    VEGETABLE    KINGDOM. 

66.  THESE  GRAND  DIVISIONS  ARE  FURTHER  DISTINGUISHED  by  their 
organic  structure  and  general  aspects.     In  the  Pha3nogamia  we  find  a 
system  of  compound  organs,  such  as  root,  stem,  leaf,  bud,  flower,  suc- 
cessively developed  on  a  determinate  plan  ;  while  in  the  Cryptogamia, 
a  gradual  departure  from  this  plan  commences,  and  they  become,  at 
length,  in  their  lowest  forms,  simple  expansions  of  a  uniform  tissue, 
without  symmetry  or  proportion.     This  distinction  is  rendered  perfectly 
clear  by  a  reference  to 

67.  EXAMPLES.    Compare  a  rose  with  a  fern.      In  the  former  a  regular  axis 
bears  buds  which  are  unfolded,  some  into  leaves,  others  into  flowers  succeeded  by 
fruit.    In  the  fern  no  buds  nor  flowers  appear,  and  the  fruit  dots  sprinkle  over  the 
back  of  the  leaf.     Again,  contrast  the  violet  with  a  lichen,  where  neither  stem,  root, 
nor  leaf  appears,  much  less  flowers,  but  disc-like  expansions  with  fruit-dust  (spores) 
produced  indifferently  in  any  part  of  them. 

68.  SUBDIVISIONS   OF   THE   PH^ENOGAMIA.      This   grand  division  is 
itself  very  naturally  resolved  into  two  subdivisions,  named  by  De  Candolle 
Exogens  and  Endogens. 

69.  EXOGENOUS  PLANTS  OR  EXOGENS  (outside-growers),  including  all 
the  trees  (except  palms)  and  most  herbaceous  plants  of  temperate  regions, 
are  so  named,  because  the  additions  to  the  diameter  of  the  stem  are 
made  externally  to  the  wood  already  formed. 

70.  ENDOGENOUS  PLANTS  OR  ENDOGENS  (inside-growers),  including  the 
grasses  and  most  bulbous  plants  of  temperate  climates,  and  the  palms, 
canes,  etc.,  south,  are  so  named  from  the  accretions  of  the  stem  taking 
place  within  the  parts  already  formed. 

71.  THESE  SUBDIVISIONS  ARE  MORE  ACCURATELY  DISTINGUISHED  by  the 
structure  of  the  seed.     The  seeds  of  the  Exogens  consists  of  two  equal 
seed-lobes,  called  cotyledons,  as  seen  in  the  pea.     The  seed  of  the  Endo- 
gens consists  of  but  one  seed-lobe  or  cotyledon,  as  in  the  Indian  Corn. 
On  this  account  Exogens  were  first  called  Dicotyledonous  (two-cotyle- 
doned)    plants,    and    Endogens,  Monocotyledonous    (one-cotyledoned) 
plants  ; — names  quite  appropriate,  but  too  hard  and  long  for  general  use. 

72.  THEY  ARE  ALSO  VERY  READILY  DISTINGUISHED  by  their  leaves, 
which  are  net-veined  in  the  Exogens,  and  parallel-veined  in  the  En,dogens. 
Moreover,  their  flowers  are  remarkably  different,  being  almost  always 
three-parted  in  the  latter  and  about  five-parted  in  the  former.     But  all 
these  distinctions,  with  some  others,will  be  more  definitely  stated  hereafter. 

73.  THE  NAME  OF  A  PLANT  or  other  natural  object  is  twofold, — the  trivial  or 
popular  name,  by  which  it  is  generally  known  in  the  country  ;  and  the  Latin  name, 
by  which  it  is  accurately  designated  in  science  throughout  the  world.     For  example, 
strawberry  is  the  popular  name,  and  Fragariq,  vesca  the  Latin  or  scientific  name  of 
the  same  plant. 

,  74.  In  elementary  treatises,  like  the  present,  for  the  sake  of  being  readily  under- 
stood, plants  are  usually  called  by  their  popular  names.  Yet  we  earnestly  recom- 
mend to  the  learner  to  accustom  himself  early  to  the  use  of  the  more  accurate  names 
employed  in  science. 


TERM    OF   PLANT   LIFE.  19 

75.  THE  LATIN  NAME  is  ALWAYS  DOUBLE; — generic  and  specific.   Thus 
Fragaria  is  generic,  or  the  name  of  the  genus  of  the  plant,  vesca  is 
specific,  or  the  name  of  the  species. 

76.  A  SPECIES  embraces  all  such  individuals  as  may  have  originated 
from  a  common  stock.     Such  individuals  bear  an  essential  resemblance 
to  each  other  as  well  as  to  their  common  parent,  in  all  their  parts. 

77.  FOR  EXAMPLE,  the  white  clover  (Trifolium  repeus)  is  a  species 
embracing  thousands  of  cotemporary  individuals  scattered  over  our  hills 
and  plains,  all  of  common  descent,  and  producing  other  individuals  of 
their  own  kind  from  their  seed. 

78.  VARIETIES.     To  this  law  of  resemblance  in  plants  of  one  common 
origin  there  are  some  apparent  exceptions.     Individuals  descended  from 
the  same  parent  often  bear  flowers  differing  in  color,  or  fruit  differing  in 
flavor,  or  leaves  differing  in  form,  etc.     Such  plants  are  called  varieties. 
They  are  never  permanent,  but  exhibit  a  constant  tendency  to  revert  to 
their  original  type. 

79.  EXAMPLES.      Varieties  occur  chiefly  in  species  maintained  by  cultivation, 
as  the  apple,  potato,  rose,  Dahlia.     They  also  occur  more  or  less  in  native  plants  (as 
Hepatica  triloba),  often  rendering  the  limits  of  the  species  extremely  doubtful.  They 
are  due  to  tho  different  circumstances  of  climate,  soil,  and  culture  to  which  they 
are  subjected,  and  continue  distinct  only  until  left  again  to  multiply  spontaneously 
from  seed  in  their  own  proper  soil,  or  some  other  change  of  circumstances, 

80.  A  GENUS  is  an  assemblage  of  species  closely  related  to  each  other 
in  the  structure  of  their  flowers  and  fruit,  and  having  more  points  of 
resemblance  than  of  difference  throughout. 

81.  ILLUSTRATION.     The  genus  clover  (Trifolium)  includes  many  species,  as  the 
white  clover  (T.  repens),  the  red  clover  (T.  pratense),  the  buffalo  clover  (T.  reflexum), 
etc.,  agreeing  in  floral  structure  and  general  aspect  so  obviously  that  the  most  hasty 
observer  would  notice  their  relationship.     3o  in  the  genus  Pinus.  no  one  would  hes- 
itate to  include  the  white  pine,  the  pitch  pine,  the  long-leafed  pine  (P.  strobus, 
rigida,  and  palustris),  any  more  than  we  would  fail  to  observe  their  difference* 

82.  Thus  individuals  are  grouped  into  species,  and  species  are  asso- 
ciated into  genera.     These  groups  constitute  the  bases  of  all  the  systems 
of  classification  in  use,  whether  by  artificial  or  natural  methods. 


CHAPTER     II. 

TERM     OF     PLANT     LIFE. 

83.  PLAN*  LIFE  DEFINED.  The  vital  principle  in  the  plant  or  its  life 
is  known  only  by  its  effects.  In  the  animal  these  effects  are,  in  kind, 
twofold,  indicating  two  kinds  of  life,  the  organic  and  the  nervous  life. 
In  the  plant  the  latter  kind  is  wanting,  and  the  sum  of  its  vital  phe- 
nomena is  popularly  expressed  in  the  one  word,  vegetation. 


20  TERM    OF    PLANT    LIFE. 

84.  STAGES  OF  PLANT  LIFE.    The  successive  phenomena  of  vegetation 
are  germination,  growth,  flowering,  fruit-bearing,  sleeping,  dying ;  and 
we  may  add  along  with  these,  absorption,  digestion,  secretion.     The 
development  of  every  plant,  herb  or  tree,  commences  with  the  minute 
embryo,  advances  through  a  continual  series  of  transformations,  with  a 
gradual  increase  of  stature,  to  its  appointed  limit. 

85.  THE  LIFE  OP  THE  PLANT  is  A  BIOGRAPHY.    Its  form  is  never  permanent,- 
but  changing  like  a  series  of  dissolving  views.     The  picture  which  it  presents  to  the 
eye  to-day  differs,  perhaps  imperceptibly,  from  that  of  yesterday.     But  let  the  views 
be  successively  sketched  when  it  sprouts  from  the  seed  in  spring,  when  clothed  in 
its  leafy  robes,  when  crowned  with  flowers,  when  laden  with  ripe  fruit,  and  when 
dead  or  dormant  in  winter — and  the  pictures  differ  as  widely  as  those  of  species  the 
most  opposite. 

86.  THE  TERM  OR  PERIOD  OF  PLANT  LIFE  varies  between  wide  extremes, 
from  the  ephemeral  mushroom  to  the  church-yard  yew,  whose  years  are 
reckoned  by  thousands.     The  term  of  life  for  each  species  is,  of  course, 
mainly  dependent  on  its  own  laws  of  growth,  yet  is  often  modified  by 
the  climate  and  seasons.     Thus  the  castor  oil  bean  (Ricinus)  is  an 
annual  herb  in  the  Northern  States,  a  shrub  in  the  Southern,  and  a 
tree  forty  feet  in  height  in  its  native  India. 

87.  FLOWERING   AND    FRUIT-BEARING   is    AN    EXHAUSTING  PROCESS. 
If  it  occur  within  the  first  or  second  year  of  the  life  of  the  plant  it 
generally  proves  the  fatal  event.     In  all  other  cases  it  is  either  pre- 
ceded or  followed  by  a  state  of  needful  repose.     Now  if  flowering  be 
prevented  by  nipping  the  buds,  the  tender  annual  may  become  peren- 
nial, as  in  the  florist's  tree-mignionette. 

88.  WE  DISTINGUISH  PLANTS,  AS    TO  THEIR  TERM  OF  LIFE,  into  the    an- 

nual  (CD),  the  biennial  (@),  and  the  perennial  (TJ.). 

89.  AN  ANNUAL  HERB  is  a  plant  whose  entire  life  is  limited  to  a  single 
season.     It  germinates  from  the  seed  in  spring,  attains  its  growth,  blos- 
soms, bears  fruit,  and  dies  in  autumn,  as  the  flax,  corn,  morning-glory. 

90.  A  BIENNIAL  HERB  is  a  plant  which  germinates  and  vegetates,  bear- 
ing leaves  only  the  first  season,  blossoms,  bears  fruit,  and  dies  the  second, 
as  the  beet  and  turnip.     Wheat,  rye,  &c.,  are  annual  plants,  but  when 
sown  in  autumn  they  have  the  habit  of  biennials,  in  consequence  of  the 
prevention  of  flowering  by  the  sudden  cold. 

91.  MONOCARPIC  HERBS.     The  century  plant  (Agave),  the  talipot  palm,  &c.,  are 
so  called.     They  vegetate,  bearing  leaves  only,  for  many  years,  accumulating  ma- 
terials and  strength  for  one  mighty  effort  in  fructification,  which  being  accomplished, 
they  die.     But  although  the  vital  principle  is  extinguished  in  the  parent,  it  survives- 
multiplied  a  thousand  fold  in  the  seed. 

92.  PERENNIAL   PLANTS   are  such  as  have  an  indefinite  duration  of 
life,  usually  of  many  years.     They  may  be  either  herbaceous  or  woody. 

93.  HERBACEOUS  PERENNIALS,  or  perennial  herbs,  are  plants  whose 


TERM  OF  PLANT  LIFE.  21 

parts  are  annual  above  ground  and  perennial  below.  In  other  words, 
their  roots  or  subterranean  stems  live  from  year  to  year,  sending  up  an- 
nually in  spring  flowering  shoots,  which  perish  after  they  have  ripened 
their  fruit  in  autumn  ;  as  the  lily,  dandelion,  hop. 

94.  \\TOODY  PERENNIALS  usually  vegetate  several  years,  and  attain 
well  nigh  their  ordinary  stature  before  flowering ;  thenceforwar<J  they 
fructify  annually,  resting  or  sleeping  in  winter.     They  are  known  as 
trees,  shrubs,  bushes  and  undershrubs — distinctions  founded  on  size  alone. 

95.  A  SHRUB  is  a  diminutive  tree,  limited  to  eighteen  or  twenty  feet 
in  stature,  and  generally  dividing  into  branches  at  or  near  the  surface  of 
the  ground  (alder,  quince).     If  the  woody  plant  be  limited  to  a  still 
lower  growth,  say  about  the  human  stature,  it  is  called  a  bush,  (snow-ball, 
Andromeda.)     If  still  smaller,  it  is  an  undershrub  (whortleberry). 

96.  A  TREE  is  understood  to  attain  to  a  height  many  times  greater 
than  the  human  stature,  with  a  permanent  woody  stem,  whose  lower 
part,  the  trunk,  is  unbranched. 

97.  LONGEVITY  OF  TREES.     Some  trees  live  only  a  few  years,  rapidly 
attaining  their  growth  and  rapidly  decaying,  as  the  peach  ;  others  have 
a  longevity  exceeding  the  age  of  man,  and  some  species  outlive  many 
irenerations. 

98.  THE  AGE  OF  A  TREE  MAY  BE  ESTIMATED  by  the  number  of  wood- 
circles  or  rings  seen  in  a  cross  section  of  the  trunk  (§  667),  each  ring 
being  (very  generally)  an  annual  growth. 

99.  EXAMPLES.     The  known  age  of  an  elm,  as  stated  by  De  Caudolle,  was  335 
years;  of  a  larch,  576  ;  a  chestnut,  600;  an  orange,  630;  oaks,  from  810  to  1500  ; 
yews,  1214  to  2820. 

100.  ADAXSON  estimated  the  age  of  the  baobabs  of  Africa  at  5000  years.     Liv- 
ingston reduces  it  to  1800.     The  yew  trees  of  Britain,  as  described  by  Balfour,  are 
of  wonderful  longevity.     One  in  Bradbura  church-yard.  Kent,  is  3000  years  old, 
and  the  great  yew  at  Hedsor,  Bucks,  twenty-seven  feet  in  diameter,  has  vegetated 
.'J200  years. 

101.  MAGNITUDE.     At  the  first  establishment  of  Dartmouth  College,  a  pine  tree 
was  felled  upon  the  college  plain  which  measured  210  feet  in  height.     In  the  Ohio 
Valley  the  red  maple  attains  a  girth  of  20  feet,  the  tulip-tree  of  30,  and  tne  syca- 
more of  more  than  60.  But  the  monarch  tree  of  the  world  is  the  Sequoya  gigantea 
— the  California  pine.     One  which  had  fallen  measured  31  feet  in  diameter,  and  363 
feet  in  length.     Among  those  yet  standing  are  some  of  still  greater  dimensions,  as 
beautiful  in  form  as  they  are  sublime  in  height,  the  growth  (as  estimated  by  the 
wood-circles)  of  more  than  3000  years. 

102.  Trees  are  again  distinguished  as  decidous  and  evergreen — the 
former  losing  their  foliage  in  autumn  and  remaining  naked  until  the 
fqllowing  spring ;  the  latter  retaining  their  leaves  and  verdure  through- 
out all  seasons.  The  fir  tribe  (Coniferae)  includes  nearly  all  the  ever- 
greens of  the  North  ;  those  of  the  South  are  far  more  numerous  in  kind, 
e.  g.,  the  magnolias,  the  live-oaks,  holly,  cherry,  palmetto,  &c. 


THE    PH^NOGAMIA HOW    DEVELOPED. 


CHAPTER     III. 


THE  PH^SNOGAMIA — HOW   DEVELOPED. 


At 


103.  THE  EMBRYO.     The  plant  in  its  earliest  stage  of  life  is  an  em- 
bryo, contained  in  a  seed.     It  then  consists  essentially  of 

two  parts,  the  radicle  and  the  plumule.     We  may  discern 
both  in  many  seeds,  as  the  pea,  bean,  acorn. 

104.  GROWTH  OF  THE  EMBRYO.     After  the  seed  begins 
to  grow  or  germinate,  the  embryo  extends  itself  in  two 
directions,  'to  form  the  axis  of  the  plant.     The  radicle  or 
root-end  grows  downward,  penetrating  the  dark  damp  earth 
as  if  to  avoid  the  light,  and  forms  the  root  or  descending 
axis.    The  plumule,  taking  the  opposite  direction,  ascends, 
seeking  the  light,  and  expanding  itself  as  much 

as  possible  to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere. 
This  constitutes  the  stem  or  ascending  axis, 
bearing  the  leaves. 

105.  GROWTH  OF  THE  TERMINAL  BUD. 
first  the  ascending  axis  is  merely  a  bud, 
that  is,  a  growing  point,  clothed  and 
protected  by  little  scales,  the  rudiment- 
ary leaves.     As  the  growing  point  ad- 
vances, and  its  lower  scales  gradually 
expand  into  leaves,  new  scales  suc- 
cessively appear  above.     Thus  the 

axis  is  always  terminated  by  a  bud. 

106.  AXILLARY  BUDS.     By  the 
growth  of  the  terminal  bud   the 
axis  is  simply  lengthened  in  one 
direction,  an  undivided  stem. 

Bill  besides  this,  buds  also 
exist,  ready  formed,  in  the 
nxils  of  the  leaves,  one  in 
each. 

107.  HOW       BRANCHES 
ARE     FORMED.       TheSC     axil- 

lary  buds,  a  part  or  all  of  them,  may  grow  and  develop  like  the  ter- 
minal bud,  or  they  may  always  sleep,  as  in  the  simple-stemmed  mullein 
or  palm.  But  in  growing  they  become  branches,  and  these  branches 


Acorn  (seed  of  Quercus  pains- 
ti'is) germinating;  6,  section  show- 
ing the  radicle  (r)  which  is  to  be- 
come the  root,  and  the  two  cotyledons  (e)  which  are  to 
nourish  it;  7,  tho  radicle  r,  descending;  8  and  9,  the 
radicle,  r,  descending,  and  the  plumule  (/>)  ascending. 


THE    PH.ENOGAMIA — HOW    DEVELOPED. 


23 


may,  in  turn,  generate  buds  and  branchlets  in  the  axils  of  their  own 
leaves  in  like  manner. 

'     108.     BY   THE   CONTINUAL  REPETITION    OF    THIS   SIMPLE    PROCESS    the    Vegetable 

fabric  arises,  ever  advancing  in  the  direction  of  all  its  growing  points,  clothing  itself ' 
with  leaves  as  it  advances,  and  enlarging  the  diameter  of  its  axis,  until  it  reaches 
the  limit  of  existence  assigned  by  its  Creator. 

109.  THE  ORGANS  OF  NUTRITION.     Reared  by  this  process  alone  the  plant  con- 
't'such  organs  only  as  were  designed  for  its  own  individual  nourishment — roots 

to  absorb  its  food,  stem  and  branches  to  transmit  it,  and  leaves  to  digest  it.  These 
are  called  organs  of  nutrition.  But  the  divine  command  which  caused  the  tribes 
of  vegetation  in  their  diversified  beauty  to  spring  from  the  earth,  required  that 
oach  plant  should  have  its  "seed  within  itself"  for  the  perpetuation  of  its  kind. 

110.  How  THE  FLOWER  ORIGINATES.     In  the  third  stage  of  vegeta- 
tion, therefore,  a  change  occurs  in  the  development  of  some  of  the  buds. 
The  growing  point  ceases  to  advance  as  hitherto,  expands  its  leaves  in 
•  •rowded  whorls,  each  successive  whorl  undergoing  a  gradual  transfor- 
mation departing  from  the  original  type, — the  leaf.     Thus,  instead  of  a 
leafy  branch,  the  ordinary  progeny  of  the  bud,  a  flower  is  the  result. 

111.  NATURE  OF  THE  FLOWER.     A  flower  may  be  considered  as  a 
transformed  branch,  having  the  leaves  crowded  together  by  the  non- 
development  of  the  axis,  moulded  into  more  delicate  structures,  and 
tinged  with  more  brilliant  hues,  not  only  to  adorn  the  face  of  nature, 
but  to  fulfill  the  important  office  of  reproduction. 


16,  Paeonr,  with  some  of  its  petals  removed  to  show  the  stamens  and  pistils,    11  to  22,  the 
organs,  graduated  from  the  leaf  to  the  pistil. 


24  THE    ROOT,    OR   DESCENDING    AXIS. 

112.  THE  FRUIT.     After  th'e  flower  has  fulfilled  its  office,  the  de- 
ciduous parts  fall  away,  and  the  remaining  energies  of  the  plant  are 
directed  to  the  development  of  the  pistils  into  the  perfect  fruit.     Let  us 
illustrate  this  doctrine  by  tracing  out 

113.  A  VIEW  OP  THE  ORGANS  OP  THE  p^JONY,  for  example,     (r)  The  root  with 
its  numerous  fibers  and  fabrittce  (some  fibers  tuberous)  continues  the  axis  downward, 
and  (s)  the  stem  upward.     The  leaves  (a)  approaching  the  summit,  gradually  lose 
their  characteristic  divisions,  and  at  length  become  simple  bracts,  (6)  still  undoubted 
leaves.     Next  by  an  easy  gradation  they  appear  as  sepals  (c,  d,  e,)  in  the  calyx,  the 
outer  envelope  of  the  flower,  with  stalk  expanded  and  blade  contracted.     Then  by 
a  somewhat  abrupt  transition  they  pass  into  the  delicate  and  highly  colored  petal)! 
of  the  corolla  (/,  g,),  still  retaining  the  essential  marks  of  the  leaf.     To  the  corolL-i 
next  succeed  those  slender  organs  called  stamens  (w,  n),    known  to  be  altered 
leaves  from  the  fact  of  their  being  often  converted  into  petals  (f,  h).     Lastly  the 
pistils  (0,)  destined  to  bear  the  seeds,  two  or  more  central  organs  green  in  color,  are 
each  the  result  of  the  infolding  of  a  leaf,  the  mid- vein  and  united  edges  being  yet 
discernible. 


CHAPTEK    IV. 


THE   ROOT   OR   DESCENDING   AXIS. 

114.  DEFINITION.      The  root  is  the  basis  of  the  plant  and  the  princi- 
pal organ  of  nutrition.     It  originates  with  the  radicle  of  the  seed  ;  the 
tendency  of  its  growth  is  downward,  and  it  is  generally  immersed  in 
the  soil. 

115.  DIAGNOSIS.     Roots  are  distinguished   from    stems  by  their  downward  di- 
rection, by  the  presence  of  absorbing  fibers,   (fibrillse),  and   by  the  absence   of 
color,  pith,  buds,  leaves,  and  all  other  stem-appendages. 

116.  OFFICE.    The  two  important  offices 
in  vegetable  life  which  the  root  is  designed 
to  fulfill,  are  obvious  to  every  one,  viz.,  to 
support  the  plant  in  its  position,  and  to 
imbibe  from  the  soil  the  food  and  moist- 
ure requisite  for  its  growth.      How   well 
God    has  adapted    its    structure    and    in- 
stincts  to  this  twofold    purpose    observa- 
tion is  continually  showing. 

117.  THE    LEADING   PROPENSITY    OF    THE 

ROOT  is,  to  divide  itself  into  branches,  and 
its  only  normal  appendages  are  branches, 
branchlets,  fibers  and  fibrilla?,  which  are 
multiplied  to  an  indefinite  extent  corres- 
<*>,  a.  Extremity  of  a  rootlet  of  maple  ponding  with  the  multiplication  of  the 

wi"th  its  flbrllto  and  •ponglolednasnl-j  t    .         & 

fiivl  50  diameters.) 


THE    ROOT,    OR    DESCENDING    AXIS. 


25 


insures  a  firm  hold  upon  the  earth,  and  brings  a  large  absorbing  sur- 
face in  contact  with  the  moist  soil. 


'23.  White  clover— an  tixial  root  (with  minute  tubers).    24,  Buttercups— fibrous  roots, 
inaxiaL    25,  Erigenia— root  tuberous. 

118.  THE  SUMMIT  of  the  root,  or  that  place  where  the  root  meets 
the  stem,  is  called  the  collum  :  the  remote,  opposite  extremities,  the 
ends  of  the  fibers,  being  chiefly  active  in  absorption,  are  the  spongiolts. 
Neither  of  these  terms  denote  distinct  organs,  but  places  only,  and  aro 
often  convenient. 

119.  FIBRILL^E,  a  Latin  term,  refers  to  those  minute  hairs,  (seen  only 
with  a  lens),  which  clothe  the  younger  fibers.     They  arise  from  the 
tender  epidermis  or  skin,  and  perish  when  that  thickens  into  bark. 
These  cooperate  with  the  fibers  in  the  absorption  of  fluids.     These  two 
organs  are  the  only  efficient  absorbers  of  liquid  nourishment. 

120.  TRANSPLANTING  TREES.    The  fibrillae  are  developed  and  perish  annually 
with  the  leaves,  whose  servants  they  are.     Few  of  them  remain  after  the  fall  of  the 
leaC     This  fact  plainly  indicates  that  the  proper  time  for  transplanting  trees  or  shrubs 
is  the  late  autumn,  winter,  or  early  spring,  when  there  are  but  few  tender  fibrillag  to 
be  injured. 

121.  Two  MODES  OF  ROOT-DEVELOPMENT  are  definitely  distinguished, 
— the  axial  and  the  inaxial. 

122.  THE  AXIAL  MODE  is  that  where  the  primary,  simple  radicle,  in 
growing  extends  itself  downwards  in  a  main  body  more  or  less  branched, 
continuous  with  the  stem,  and  forms  the  permanent  root  of  the  plant. 


26  THE    ROOT,    OR    DESCENDING    AXIS. 

Such  is  the  case  with  the  mustard,  beet,  maple,  and  most  of  the  Dico- 
tyledonous plants.     In 

123.  THE  INAXIAL  MODE,  the  primary  radicle,  proves  abortive,  never 
developing  into  an  axial  root ;  but,  growing  laterally  only,  it  sends  out 
little  shoots  from  its  sides,  which  grow  into  long,  slender  roots  ncarh 
equal  in  value,  none  of  them  continuous  with  the  stem.  Of  this  natuiv 
are  the  roots  of  all  the  grasses,  the  lilies  and  the  Monocotyledons  gen- 
erally, and  of  the  Cryptogamia.  Plants  raised  from  layers,  cuttings, 
tubers,  and  slips,  are  necessarily  destitute  of  the  axial  root. 


FIGS.  26,  Maple— an  axial,  ramose  root.    27,  Parsnip— a  fusiform  root.    23,  Turnip— a 
napiform  root.    29,  Corallorhiza— a  coralline  root. 

124.  THE  VARIOUS  FORMS  OF  THE  ROOT  are  naturally  and  conve- 
niently referred  to  these  two  modes  of  development.     The  principal 
axial  forms  are  the  ramose,  fusiform,  napiform,  conical.     To  all  thesf 
forms  the  general  name,  tap-root,  is  applied. 

125.  THE    RAMOSE  is  the  woody  tap-root  of  most  trees  and  shrubs, 
where  the  main  root  branches  extensively,  and  is  finally  dissolved  ami 
lost  in  multiplied  ramifications. 

126.  TUBEROUS  TAP-ROOTS.     In  herbaceous  plants  the  tap-root  often 
becomes  thick  and  fleshy,  with  comparatively  few  branches.     This  ten- 
dency is  peculiarly  marked  in  biennials  (§  90),  where  the  root  serves  as 
a  reservoir  of  the    superabundant  food  which  the  plant  accumulates 
during  its  first  year's  growth,  and  keeps  in  store  against  the  exhausting 
process  of  fruit-bearing  in  its  second  year.     Such  is 

127.  THE   FUSIFORM  (spindle-shaped)  root,  thick,  succulent,  tapering 
downwards,  and  also  for  a  short  space  upwards.    The  beet,  radish,  gin- 
seng are  examples. 


THE    ROOT,    OR    DESCENDING    AXIS.  27 

128.  THE  CONICAL  ROOT  tapers  its  whole  length,  from  the  collum 
downwards  (carrot). 

129.  THE  NAPIFORM  ROOT,  (turnip,)  swells  out  in  its  upper  part  so 
that  its  diameter  equals  or  exceeds  its  length,  as  in   Erigenia,  Panax 
trifolimn  (25,  25). 

34  SO  31  32 


FIGS.  80,  Precny— fibre-tuberous  roots.  81,  Ginseng— fusiform  root  82,  Pelargonium  triste— • 
moniliform  root.  33,  Spirea  filipendula — nodulose  root  34,  A  creeping  stem,  with  adventi- 
tious roots. 

130.  THE  FORMS  OF  IN  AXIAL  ROOTS  are  fibrous,  fibro-tuberous,   tu- 
bercular, coraline,  nodulous,  moniliform. 

131.  THE  'FIBROUS   root  consists  of  numerous  thread-like  divisions 
sent  off  directly  from  the  base  of  the  stem,  with  no  main  or  tap-root. 
Such  are  the  roots  of  most  grasses,  which  multiply  their  fibres  exces- 
sively in  light  sandy  soils. 

132.  FIBRO-TUBEROUS  ROOTS   (or  fasciculate).     Inaxial  roots  are  so 
called  when  some  of  the  fibres  are  thick  and  fleshy,  as  in  the  asphodel, 
<:row-foot,  pseony,  Orchis,  Dahlia.     When  the  fibre  is  enlarged  in  cer- 
tain parts  only,  it  is  NODULOUS,  and  when  the  enlargements  occur  at 
regular  intervals,  it  is  MONILIFORM  (necklace-like).     When  it  bears  little 
tubers  here  and  there,  as  in  squirrel-corn  (Diclytra  Canadensis),  it  is 

TUBERCULAR. 

133.  DEPOSITS  OF  STARCH,  or  farinaceous  matter,  in  all  these  cases, 
constitute  the  thickening  substance  of  the  root,  stored  up  for  the  future 
use  of  the  plant. 

134.  ADVENTITIOUS  ROOTS  are  such  as  originate  in  some  part  of  the 
ascending  axis, — stem  or  branches,  whether  above  or  below  the  ground. 
They  are  so  called  because  their  origin  is  indeterminate,  both  in  place 
and  time.     Examples  are  seen  in  the  ground-ivy,  twin-flower,  and  other 
creeping  plants.     Several  special  forms  should  be  noticed  ;  as, 


28 


THE  ROOT,  OR    DESCENDING  AXIS. 


135.  THE    CIRRHOSIS    ROOTS 
of  certain  climbing  vines  (Euro- 
pean ivy,  poison  ivy,  trumpet- 
creeper)    put    forth    in    great 
numbers  from  the  stem,  serv- 
ing for  its  mechanical  support 
and    no     other     known     use. 
Again, 

136.  THE  FULCRA  of  certain 
endogenous     plants    originate 
high  up  the  stem,  and  descend- 
ing obliquely,  enter  the  soil.     Of  this  kind 
are  the  roots  of  the  screw-pine  (Panda- 
nus)  of  the  conservatories,  which  are  often 
several  feet  in  length  before  reaching  the 
ground.     The  figure  represents  a   screw- 
pine  which  was   wholly   propped  up  by 
roots  of  this  kind  as   if  on   stilts.     Sim- 
ilar roots  occur,  in  a  smaller  way,  at  the 
lower  joints  of  the  Indian  corn. 

137.  THE  BANYAN  TREE  (Ficus  Indica)  develops 
adventitious  roots  on  a  grand  scale.    "When  the 

branches  have  stretched  out  so  far  as  to  need  ad-          85.  Screw-pine  (Pandanus). 
ditional  support,  they  send  forth  adventitious  roots,  descending  to  the  earth.     Hav- 
ing penetrated  the  soil,  these  roots  become  supporting  columns.     The  branches 


06.  Banyan  (Ficus  Indica). 


THE    ROOT,  OB    DESCRIPTIVE    AXIS. 


continuing  to  advance,  send  down  other  roots,  which  in  turn  become  columns  similar 
to  trunks,  until  a  single  tree  becomes  a  grove  capable  of  sheltering  an  army  of  men. 

138.  THE  MANGROVE  (Rhizopora),  of  the  West  Indies,  sends  down  axial  roots 
from  its  branches.     The  seed  germinates  before  detached,  sending  down  its  long 
radical  until  it  reaches  the  mud  in  which  these  trees  grow.     Thus  the  young  plants 
gain  a  firm  standing  before  quitting  their  hold  of  the  parent  tree. 

139.  To  FAVOR  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  ADVENTITIOUS  ROOTS  on  any  particular 
part,  keep  that  part  in  contact  with  moist  soil     We  often  observe  such  roots  to  arise 
naturally,  in  prostrate  branches  or  stems,  at  those  points  which  touch  the  ground. 
In  slips,  cuttings,  &o,  the  same  thing  occurs  artificially.     Hence  to  increase  the 
roots  of  the  potato  vine,  or  corn,  heap   the  earth  against  the  stems.    The  madder 
plant,  which  is  cultivated  solely  for  the  rich  coloring  matter  in  its  roots,  is  success- 
fully treated  in  no  other  way.     Its  adventitious  roots  are  excessively  multiplied  by 
deep  spading  and  high  "  hilling." 

140.  To  PRODUCE  DWARF  TREES  it  is  only  necessary,  by  any  contrivance,  to  re- 
tain a    quantity  of  moist  earth   against   the  base  of  the  selected  branch  until    it 
strikes  root.     Afterwards  it  may  be  severed  from  the  tree  and  transferred  to  the 
soil.     (Fig.  40,  d). 

141.  AXIAL  AND  IN  AXIAL  ROOTS  IN  AGRICULTURE.     This  distinction 
must  never  be  lost  sight  of.     The  former  strike  deep,  anchor  firmly,  and 
draw  their  nourishment  from  the  lower  strata  of  the  soil.     The  latter 
abide  near  the  surface,  and  feed  upon  the  upper  soil.  Hence  let  us  learn 

a.  Which  class  of  crops  requires  deep  and  which  shallow  tillage  : 

b.  Which  should  succeed  each  other  in  the  rotation  of  crops ; 

c.  Which  may  be  sown  together  in  the  mixture  of  crops. 

142.  To  TRANSFORM  A  TAP-ROOT  TO  A  FIBROUS.  At  a  certain  distance  below  the 
collum  sever  the  tap-root  without  otherwise  disturbing  the  plant.  The  consequence 
will  be  an  increased  growth  of  the  lateral  or  fibrous  roots  nearer  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 


37.  Old  oak  trunk  with  horizontal  branch  bearing  epiphytes  and 
parasites,  a,  A  fern  (Polypodinm  incanum).  &,  Epidendrum  con- 
opseum).  ec,  Long  moss  (Tillandsia),  <f,  Misseltoe  (Viscum). 
e,  Lichen. 

143.  EPIPHYTES  (erri,  upon,  (pvror,  a  plant),  a 
class  of  plants,  called  also  air-plants,  have  roots 
which  are  merely  mechanical,  serving  to  fix  such 


30  THE  ROOT,  OR    DESCRIPTIVE  AXIS. 

plants  firmly  upon  other  plants  or  trees,  while  they  derive  their  nour- 
ishment wholly  from  the  air.  The  long-moss  (Tillandsia)  and  Conop- 
seum  are  examples. 

144.  PARASITES — THREE  CLASSES.  Very  different  in  nature  are  the 
roots  of  those  plants  called  parasites,  which  feed  upon  the  juices  of 
other  plants  or  trees.  Such  roots  penetrate  the  bark  of  the  nurse-plant 
to  the  cambium  layer  beneath,  and  appropriate  the  stolen  juices  to  their 
own  growth,  as  the  dodder  and  misseltoe.  Other  parasites,  although 
standing  in  the  soil,  are  fixed  upon  foreign  roots,  and  thence  derive- 
either  their  entire  sustenance,  as  the  beach-drops  and  other  leafless,  col- 
orless plants;  or  apart  of  their  sustenance,  as  the  cow-wheat  (Melam- 
pyruin),  Gerardia. 

145.  SUBTERRANEAN  STEMS.  As  there  are  serial  roots,  so  there  are  subterranean 
•stems.  These  are  frequently  mistaken  for  roots,  but  may  be  known  by  their  habit- 
ually and  regularly  producing  buds.  Of  this  nature  are  the  tubers  of  the  Irish  po- 
tato, the  root-stock  of  the  sweet  flag,  the  bulb  of  the  tulip.  But  even  the  true 
root  may  sometimes  develop  buds — accidentally  as  it  were,  in  consequence  of  some 
injury  to  the  upper  axis,  or  some  other  unnatural  condition. 


CHAPTER    V. 

THE     STEM,     OR     ASCENDING     AXIS. 

146.  DEFINITION.     That  part  of  the  plant  which  originates  with  the 
plumule,  tends  upward  in  its  growth  and  expands  itself  to  the  influence 
of  the  air  and  the  light,  is  called  the  stem  or  ascending 'axis. 

147.  THE  GENERAL  IDEA  OF  THE  AXIS  is  the  central  substantial  portion  of  the 
plant,  bearing  the  appendages,   viz.,   the  root   below  and  the  leaf-organs  above. 
Although  not  marked  by  gay  coloring  or  fantastic  forms,  yet  we  regard  the  stem 
with  a  lively  interest  for  its  substantial  value,  its  gracefulness  and  lofty  propor- 
tions, its  infinite  gradation  of  form  and  texture  from  the  tender  speedwell  crushed 
beneath  the  foot  to  the  strong  forest  oak. 


3S.  Procumbent  stem— Chiogenes  hispiclula. 


148.  DIRECTION  OF  ITS  GROWTH.  Although  the  first  direction  of 
the  stem's  growth  is  vertical  in  all  plants,  there  are  many  in  which  this 
direction  does  not  continue,  but  changes  into  the  oblique  or  horizontal, 
either  just  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  just  beneath  it.  If  the 


THE    STEM,    OR    ASCENDING    AXIS.  31 

stem  continues  to  arise  in  the  original  direction,  as  it  most  commonly 
does,  it  is  said  to  be  erect.  If  it  grow  along  the  ground  without  rooting 
it  is  said  to  be  procumbent,  prostrate,  trailing.  If  it  recline  upon  the 
oround  after  having  at  the  base  arisen  somewhat  above  it,  it  is  decum- 
bent. If  it  arise  obliquely  from  a  prostrate  base,  it  is  said  to  be  ascend- 
ing, and  if  it  continue  buried  beneath  the  soil,  it  is  subterranean. 


39.  Decumbent  stem — Anagallis  arvensia. 

149.  SUBTERRANEAN  STEMS  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  the 
roots  by  the  natural  and  habitual  presence  of  buds  in  the  former,  regu- 
larly arranged,  while  no  buds  (unless  rarely  adventitious)  exist  in  the 
latter. 

150.  STEMS  ARE  EITHER  SIMPLE  OR  BRANCHED.     The  simple  stem  is 
produced  by  the  unfolding  of  the  primary  bud  (the  plumule)  in  the  di- 
rection of  its  point  alone.     As  this  bud  is  developed  below  into  the 
lengthening  stem,  it  is  continually  reproduced  at  its  summit,  and  so  is 
always  borne  at  the  termination  of  the  stem.     Hence  the  axis  is  always 
terminated  by  a  bud. 

151.  THE  BRANCHED  STEM,  which  is  by  far  the  most  common,  is  pro- 
duced by  the  development  of  both  terminal  and  axillary  buds.     The 
axis  produces  a  bud  in  the  axil  of  its  every  leaf,  that  is  at  a  point  just 
above  the  origin  of  the  leaf-stalk.     These  buds  remain  inactive  in  the 
case  of  the  simple  stem,  as  the  mullein,  but  more  generally  are  devel- 
oped into  leafy  subdivisions  of  the  axis,  and  the  stem  thus  becomes 
branched. 

152.  A  BRANCH  is,  therefore,  a  division  of  the  axis  produced  by  the 
development  of  an  axillary  bud.     This  bud,  also,  ever  renewed,  is  borno 
at  the  termination  of  the  branch,  so  that  axillary  buds  each  in  turn  be- 
come terminal. 

153.  THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  BRANCHES  upon  the  stem  depends 
therefore  upon  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves,  which  will  be  more  par- 
ticularly noticed  hereafter.     This  arrangement  is  beautifully  regular, 
according  to  established  laws.     In  this  place  we  briefly  notice  three 
general  modes  : 

The  alternate,  where  but  one  branch  arises  from  the  node  on  differ- 
ent sides  of  the  stem,  as  in  the  elm. 


32  THE   STEM,    OR   ASCENDING    AXIS. 

The  opposite,  where  two  branches  stand  on  opposite  sides  of  the  same 
node,  as  in  the  maple. 

Verticillate,  where  three  or  more  branches,  equidistant,  encircle  the 
stem  at  each  node,  as  in  the  pine. 

154.  THE  ANGLE  OP  DIVERGENCE  in  branches  is  also  subject  to  definite   rules 
more  obvious  in  the  earlier  stages  of  growth.    "While  the  divergence  is  uniform  in 
the  same  species,  it  varies  to  every  degree  of  the  circle  in  different  species,  greatly 
affecting  the  form  of  the  tree.      In  general,  without  marking  the  exact  degree, 
branches  are  said  to  be  erect  (Lombardy  poplar),  spreading  or  obliquely  ascending 
(common),  divaricate  or  at  nearly  a  right  angle  (oak),  deflexed  (beach),  and  pendu- 
lous (weeping  willow). 

155.  CERTAIN  KINDS  OF  BRANCHES  are  noted  for  their  tendency  to 
produce    adventitious   roots,  and  thus  to  become  independent  plants. 
Nurserymen  avail  themselves  of  this  property  in  propagation,  and  name 
such  branches  cions,  stolons,  offsets,  slips,  layers,  cuttings,  and  runners. 

156.  THE  SUCKER  is  a  branch  issuing  from  some  underground  por- 
tion of  the  plant,  leaf-bearing  above  and  sending  out  roots  from  its  own 
base,  becoming  finally  a  separate,  independent  plant.     The  rose  and 
raspberry  are  thus  multiplied. 


c  a  /          « 

40.  <r,  Slip  (gooseberry)  taking  root.  &,  Cutting  (grape)  taking  root,  c,  Stolons  or  layers  arti- 
ficially arranged  for  propagation,  d,  A  mode  of  dwarfing  (§  140).  e,  Ciona — process  of  graft- 
ing. /  A  Sucker. 

157.  THE  STOLON  or  LAYER  is  a  branch  issuing  from  some  above- 
ground  portion   of  the  stem,  and   afterward  declining  to  the  ground 
takes  root  at  or  near  its  extremity,  sends  up  new  shoots,  and  becomes  a 
new  plant.     The   hobble-bush  and  black  raspberry  do  this  naturally, 
and  gardeners  imitate  the  process  in  many  plants. 

158.  THE   CION  is  any  healthy  twig  or  branchlet  bearing  one  or 
more  buds,  used  by  the  gardeners  in  the  common  process  of  grafting. 
Slips  and  cuttings  are  fragments  of  ordinary  branches  or  stems  con- 


THE    STEM,    OR    ASCENDING    AXIS. 


sisting  of  young  wood  bearing  one  or  more  buds.     These  "  strike"  root 
when  planted  in  the  earth.     So  the  grape-vine  and  hop. 

159.  THE  OFFSET  is  a  term  applied  to  short  side-branches  ending  in 
a  tuft  (rosette)  of  leaves,  and  capable  of  taking  root  when  separated 
from  the  parent  plant,  as  in  houseleek. 


41,  A  strawberry  plant  (Fragaria  vesca)  sending  out  a  runner. 

160.  THE  RUNNER  is  a  prostrate,  filiform  branch  issuing  from  certain 
short-stemmed  herbs,  extending  itself  along  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
striking  root  at  its  end  without  being  buried.     Thence  leaves  arise  and 
a  new  plant,  which  in  turn  sends  out  new  runners ;  as  in  the  strawberry. 

161.  THE  NODE  or  joint  of  the  stem  marks  a  definite  point  of  a  pecu- 
liar organization  where  the  leaf  with  its  axillary  bud  arises.     The  nodes 
occur  at  regular  intervals,  and  the  spaces  between  them  are  termed  in- 
ternodes.     This  provides  for  the  symmetrical  arrangement  of  the  leaves 
and  branches  of  the  stem.     In  the  root  no  such  provision  is  made,  and 
the  branches  have  no  manner  of  arrangement. 

162.  WHY  THE  STEM  GRADUALLY  DIMINISHES  UPWARDS.     In  the  in- 
tornodcs  the  fibres  composing  the  stem  are  parallel,  but  at  the  nodes 
this  order  is  interrupted  in  consequence  of  some  of  the  inner  fibres 
from  below  turning  outwards  into  the  leafstalk,  causing  more  or  less  a 
jointed  appearance.     Hence  each  internode  contains  fewer  fibres  than 
those  below  it. 

163.  How  THE  STEM  GROWS.     The  growth  of  the  stem  consists  in 
the  development  of  the  internodes.     In  the  bud  the  nodes  are  closely 
crowded  together,  with  no  perceptible  internodes,  thus  bringing  the  ru- 
dimentary leaves  in  close  contact  with  each  other.     But  in   the  stem, 
which  is  afterwards  evolved  from  that  bud,  we  see  full  grown  leaves 
separated  by  considerable  spaces.     That  is,  while  leaves  are  developed 
from  the  rudiments,  internodes  are  evolved  from  the  growing  point. 

164.  Bur  THERE  ARE  EXCEPTIONS  here  as  to  all  other  rules  in  science,  adding 
another  element  of  diversity  to  the  endless  gradation  of  form  in  Nature's  works.   In 


34 


THE    STEM,    OR    ASCENDING    AXIS. 


many  plants  the  axis  of  the  primary  bud  does  not  develop  into  interaodes  at  all,  or 
but  partially  in  various  degrees,  as  in  the  Trillium,  Crocus,  blood-root.  Such  stems 
seldom  appear  above  ground,  and  are  said  to  be  subterranean. 

165.  This  fact  makes  a  wide  difference  in  the  forms  of  stems,  and  naturally  con- 
stitutes them  into  two  great  divisions,  viz.,  the  leaf-stem  and  the  scale-stem.    . 

166.  THE  LEAF-STEMS   are  those  forms  which,  with   internodes  fully 
developed,  arise  into  the  air  crowned  with  leaves.     The  principal  forms 
are  the  caulis,  culm,  trunk,  caudex,  vine. 

167.  THE  SCALE-STEMS  are  those  forms  which,  with  internodes  par- 
tially or  not  at  all  developed,  and  generally  bearing  scales,  which  are 
undeveloped  leaves,  scarcely  emerge  from,  beneath  the  soil.     They  are 
the  creeper  and  rhizoma  (developed),  the  crown,  tuber,  corn  and  bulb 
(undeveloped). 


42,  Scale-stem,  (Dicentra  cucullaria).    43,  A  flower  of  the  same.    44,  A  flower  of  D.  Canadensis. 
45,  Leaf-stem  (Chimaphila  maculata). 

168.  THE  LEAF-STEMS  ARE    EITHER  HERBACEOUS    OR  WOODY.     The 
herbaceous,  whether  arising  from  annual,  biennial  or  perennial   roots, 
bear  fruit  but  one  season  and  then  perish  at  least  down  to  the  root, 
scarcely  becoming   woody  ;  as  the  ©  mustard,  (D  radish,    and  the  7]. 
grasses.     The  woody  leaf-stems  survive  the  winter,  and  become  firm 
and  solid  in  texture  in  after  years. 

169.  CAULIS  is  a  term  generally  applied  to  the  annual  leaf-stems  of 


THE    STEM,    OR    ASCENDING    AXIS. 


35 


herbaceous  plants.  "  Halm"  is  a  term  used  in  England  with  the  same 
signification.  Caulescent  and  accaulescent  are  convenient  terms  denot- 
ing, the  former  the  presence,  and  the  latter  the  absence  of  the  caulis  or 
aerial  stem. 

170.  THE  CULM  is  the  stem  of  the  grasses  and  the  sedges,  generally 
jointed,  often  hollow,  rarely  becoming  woody,  as  in  cane  and  bamboo. 

171.  THE  TRUNK  is  the  name  of  the  peculiar  stems  of  arborescent  plants. 
It  is  the  central  column  or  axis  which  supports  their  branching  tops 
and  withstands  the  assaults  of  the  wind  by  means  of  the  great  firmness 
and  strength  of  the  woody  or  ligneous  tissue  with  which  it  abounds. 

172.  VARIOUS  FORMS.    The  trunk  is  usually  seen  simple  and  columnar 
below,  for  a  certain  space,  then  variously  dividing  itself  into  branches. 
Here  it  is  cylindrical,  straight  and  erect,  as  in  the  forest  pine  ;  prismatic 
often,  as  in  the  gum-tree  ;  gnarled  and  curved,  as  in  the  oak  ;  or  inclined 
far  over  its  base,  as  in  the  sycamore. 


B  E 

46.    S,  Spruce.    B,  Beech.    E,  Elm ;   to  illustrate  excurrent  and  solvent  axis, 

173.  Ix  DIYIDIXG-  ITSELF  INTO  BRANCHES  we  observe  two  general  modes,  with 
their  numerous  variations,  strikingly  characterizing  the  true  forms.  In  the  one, 
named  by  Lindley  the  EXCURREXT,  the  trunk,  from  the  superior  vigor  of  its  terminal 
bud,  takes  precedence  of  the  brandies,  and  runs  through  to  the  summit,  as  m  the 


36 


THE-  STEM,    OR    ASCENDING    AXIS. 


beech,  birch,   oak,  and  especially  in  the  spruce,— trees  with  oval  or  pyramidal 
crowns. 

174.  BUT  m  THE  OTHER,  the  SOLVENT  axis,  as  seen  in  the  elm,  the  apple-tree, 
the  trunk  suddenly  divides  into  several  subequal  branches,  which  thence  depart  with 
different  degrees  of  divergency,  giving  the  urn  form  to  the  elm,  the  rounded  form 
to  the  apple-tree,  the  depressed  form  to  the  sloe-tree  (Viburnum)  and  dogwood. 

175.  THE  FORM  OF  THE  TRUNK  sometimes  changes  with  age,  especially  in  tropical 
regions,  some  distorted  by  huge  local  excrescences,  others  swelling  out  in  the  midst 
to  "  aldermanic"  proportions. 


47.  «,  An  old  willow  (Salix  Babylonica)  with  gnarled  and  misshapen  trunk.  &,  Caii-den  of  a 
cactus  (Echinocactus  Ottonis).  c,  Bom bax,  of  Brazilian  forests,  with  distended  trunk,  d,  Pal- 
metto (Cham#,rops),  the  caudex  rough  with  the  persistent  bases  of  the  petioles. 


176.  CAUDEX  is  a  term  now  applied  to  the  peculiar  trunk  of  the  palms  and  tree- 
ferns,  simple,  branchless  columns,  or  rarely  dividing  in  advanced  age.  It  is  pro- 
duced by  the  growth  of  the  terminal  bud  alone,  and  its  sides  are  marked  by  the 
scars  of  the  fallen  leaf-stalks  of  former  years,  or  are  yet  covered  by  their  persistent 


177.  THE  STOCK  or  CAUDEX  of  the  cactus  tribe  is  extraordinary  in  form  and  sub- 
stance. It  is  often  jointed,  prismatic,  branched,  always  greenish,  fleshy,  and  full 
of  a  watery  juice.  Instead  of  leaves,  its  lateral  buds  develop  spines  only,  the  stem 
itself  performing  the  functions  of  leaves.  These  plants  abound  in  the  warm  regions 
of  tropical  America,  and  afford  a  cooling,  acid  beverage  to  the  thirsty  traveler  when 
springs  dry  up  under  the  torrid  sun. 

178.  THE  VINE  is  either  herbaceous  or  woody.  It  is  a  stem  too  slen- 
der and  weak  to  stand  erect,  but  trails  along  the  ground  or  any  conve- 
nient support.  Sometimes,  by  means  of  special  organs  for  this  purpose, 


THE    STEM,    OR    ASCENDING    AXIS. 


called  tendrils,  it  ascends  trees  and  other  objects  to  a  great  height,  as 
the  grape,  gourd,  and  other  climbing  vines. 


4S 


Vines.    48,  Passion-flower  (Passiflora  lutea)  climbing  by  tendrils.    49,  Morning-glory,  twining 
from  left  to  right.    50,  Hop,  twining  from  right  to  left 

179.  THE  TWINING  VINE,  having  also  a  length  greatly  disproportioned  to  its  dia- 
meter, supports  itself  on  other  plants  or  objects  by  entwining  itself  around  them, 
being  destitute  of  tendrils.     Thus  the  hop  ascends  into  the  air  by  foreign  aid,  and 
it  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  direction  of  its  winding  is  always  the  same,  viz.,  with 
the  sun,  from  left  to  right ;  nor  can  any  artificial  training  induce  it  to  reverse  its 
course.  -This  is  a  general  law  among  twining  stems.     Every  individual  plant  of 
the  same  species  revolves  in  the  same  direction,  although  opposite  directions  may 
characterize  different  species.  Thus  the  morning  glory  revolves  always  against  the  sun. 

180.  THE  FORMS  OF  SCALE-STEMS   are  singular,   often   distorted  in 
consequence  of  their  underground  growth  and  the  unequal  development 
of  the  internodes.     They  commonly  belong  to  perennial  herbs,  and  the 
principal  forms  are  described  as  follows ;  but  intermediate  connecting 
forms  are  very  numerous  and  often  perplexing. 

181.  THE  CREEPER  is  either  subaerial  or  subterranean.    In  the  former 
case  it  is  prostrate,  running  and  rooting  at  every  joint,  and  hardly  dis- 
tinguishable otherwise  from  leaf-stems,  as  the  twin-flower  (Linna3a),  the 
partridge-berry  (Mitchella).     In  the  latter  case  it  is  more  commonly 
clothed  with  scales,  often  branching  extensively,  rooting  at  the  nodes, 
exceedingly  tenacious  of  life,  extending  horizontally  in  ail  directions  be- 
neath the  soil,  annually  sending  up  from  its  terminal  buds  erect  stems 


38 


THE    STEM,    OB    ASCENDING    AXIS. 


into  the  air.  The  witch-grass  (Triticurn  repens)  is  an  example.  Such 
plants  are  a  sore  evil  to  the  garden.  They  can  have  no  better  cultiva- 
tion than  to  be  torn  and  cut  to  pieces  by  the  spade  of  the  angry  gar- 
dener, since  they  are  thus  multiplied  as  many  time's  as  there  are 
fragments.  &  5 


H 

Pig.  51.  Creeper  of  "  Nimble  Will,"  or  witch-grass ;  a,  Bud  ;   &&,  Bases  of  culms. 

182.  UTILITY.     Repent  stems  of  this  kind  are  not,  however,  without  their  use. 
They  frequently  abound  in  loose,  sandy  soil,  which  they  serve  to  bind  and  secure 
against  the  inroads  of  the  water  and  even  the  sea  itself.     Holland  is  said  to  owe  its 
very  existence  to  the  repent  stems  of  such  plants  as  the  mat-grass  (Arundo  arenaria), 
Carex  arenarius  and  Elymus  arenarius,  which  overrun  the  artificial  dykes  upon  its 
shores,  and  by  their  innumerable  roots  and  creepers  apparently  bind  the  loose  sand 
into  a  firm  barrier  against  the  washing  of  the  waves.     So  the  turf,  chiefly  composed 
of  repent   grass-stems,  forms  the   only  security  of  our  own  sandy  or  clayey  hills 
against  the  washing  rains. 

183.  THE  RHIZOME  OR  ROOT-STOCK  differs  from  the  creeper  only  in 
being  shorter  and  thicker,  having  its  internodes  but  partially  developed. 
It  is  a  prostrate,  fleshy,  rooting  stem,  either  wholly  or  partially  subter- 
ranean, often  scaly  with  the  bases  of  undeveloped  leaves,  or  marked 
with  the  scars  of  former  leaves,  and  yearly  producing  new  shoots  and 
roots.     Such  is  the  fleshy,  horizontal  portion  of  the  blood-root,  sweet- 
flag,  water-lily,  bramble  (the  latter  hardly  different  from  the  creeper). 

184.  THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  RHIZOME  is  instructive,  macking  its  peculiar  character. 
Each  joint  marks  the  growth  of  a  year.    In  spring  the  terminal  bud  unfolds  into 

53  52  a 


Fig.  52.  Ehizoma  of  Solomon's-seal  (Polygonatum  multiflora)  a,  Fragment  of  the  first  year's 
growth  ;  &,  the  secorid  year's  growth  ;  c,  growth  of  the  third  year  ;  d,  growth  of  the  present 
(fourth)  year,  bearing  the  stem  which,  on  decaying,  will  leave  a  scar  (seal)  like  the  rest.  53.  Pre- 
morse  stem  of  Trillium. 


THE    STEM,  OR    ASCENDING    AXIS. 


39 


leaves  and  flowers  to  perish  in  autumn — a  new  bud  to  open  the  following  spring — 
and  a  new  internode  with  its  roots  to  abide  several  years.  The  number  of  joints  in- 
dicates, not  the  age  of  the  plant,  but  the  destined  age  of  each  intdrnode.  Thus  if 
there  are  three  joints,  we  infer  that  they  are  triennial,  perishing  after  the  third  sea- 
son, while  the  plant  still  grows  on. 

185.  THE  PREMORSE  ROOT-STOCK,  formerly  described  as  a  root,  is  a 
short,    erect   rhizome,  ending   abruptly  below  as  if  bitten   square  off 
(prcemorsus).     This  is  owing  to  the  death  of  the  earlier  and  lower  in- 
ternodes  in  succession,  as  in  the  horizontal  rhizome.     Scabious,  Viola 
pedata,  benjamin-root  (Trillium)  are  examples. 

186.  CROWN  OF  THE  ROOT  designates  a  short  stem  with  condensed 
internodes,  remainiug  upon  some  perennial  roots,  at  or  beneath  the  sur- 
face soil  after  the  leaves  and  annual  stems  have  perished. 

187.  THE  TUBER  is  an  annual  thickened  portion  of  a  subterranean 
stem  or  branch,  provided  with  latent  buds  called  eyes,  from  which  new 
plants  ensue  the  succeeding  year.     It  is  the  fact  of  its  origin  with  the 
ascending  axis,  and  the  production  of  buds  that  places  the  tuber  among 
stems  instead  of  roots.     The  potato  and  artichoke  are  examples. 

56  5')  54 


Tubers  as  they  grow.    54,  The  common  potato  (Salanum).    55,   Artichoke    (Helianthns) 
56,  Sweet  potato  (Convolvulus). 

188.  How  THE  POTATO  GROWS.  The  stem  of  the  potato  plant  sends  out  roots 
from  its  base,  and  branches  above  like  other  plants ;  but  we  observe  that  its  branches 
have  two  distinct  modes  of  development.  Those  branches  which  arise  into  t: 
whether  issuing  from  the  above-ground  or  the  under-ground  portion  of  the  stern, 
expand  regularly  into  leaves,  &c ,  while  those  lower  branches  which  continue  to 
grope  in  the  dark,  damp  ground,  cease  at  length  to  elongate,  swell  up  at  the  ends 
into  tubers  with  developed  buds  and  abundance  of  nutritious  matter  in  reserve  for 
renewed  growth  the  following  year. 


40 


THE    STEM,    OR   ASCENDING    AXIS. 


189.  THE  CORM  is  an  under-ground,  solid,  fleshy  stem,  with  con- 
densed internodes,  never  extending,  but  remaining  of  a  rounded  form 
covered  with  thin  scales.  It  is  distinguished  from  roots  by  its  leaf-bud, 
which  is  either  borne  at  the  summit,  as  in  the  crocus,  or  at  the  side,  as 
in  the  colchicum  and  putty-root  (Aplectrum). 

190.  How  THE  CORM  GROWS.  The  corm  usuully  accomplishes  its  part  in  vegeta- 
tion in  one  or  two  seasons,  and  then  gradually  yields  up  its  substance  and  life  for 
the  nourishment  of  the  new  progeny  formed  from  the  axils  of  its  upper  scales  in 
case  of  the  Crocus  and  Gladiolus,  or  the  single  new  corm  from  the  axil  of  a  lateral 
scale,  as  in  Colchicum. 


57,  Corms  of  putty-root  (Aplectrum)  ;  a,  of  last  year,  6,  of  the  present  year.    58,  Scale  bulb  of 
white  lily.    59,  Scale  bulb  of  Oxalis  violacea. 

191.  THE  BULB  partakes  largely  of  the  nature  of  the  bud.     It  con- 
sists of  a  short,  dilated  axis,  bearing  an  oval  mass  of  thick,  fleshy  scales 
closely  packed  above,  a  circle  of  adventitious  roots  around  its  base,  and 
a  flowering  stem  from  the  terminal,  or  a  lateral  bud. 

192.  How  MULTIPLIED.    Bulbs  are  renewed  or  multiplied  annually  at  the  ap- 
proach of  winter  by  the  development  of  bulbs  from  the  axils  of  the  scales,  which 
increase  at  the  expense  of  the  old,  and  ulti- 
mately become  detached.    Bulbs  which  flow- 
er from  the  terminal  bud  are  necessarily  either 

annual  or  biennial :  those  flowering  from  an 
axillary  bud  may  be  perennial,  as  the  termi- 
nal bud  may  in  this  case  continue  to  develop 
new  scales  indefinitely. 

193.  BULBS  are  said  to  be  tunicated 
when  they  consist  of  concentric  layers, 
each  entire  and  enclosing  all  within  it, 

as  in  the    onion. 

, 

mon  variety  is  the  scaly  bulb — consist-  the  bulbs  of  next  year. 

ing  of  fleshy,  concave  scales  arranged  spirally  upon  the  axis,  as  in  the 

lily. 


60.  Bulb  of  Lilium  superbum,  with  habit 
But  the   more    COlri-  of  a  rhizome ;  «.  full-grown  bulb  sending 
hp  a  terminal  stem  c,  and  two  offsets  6ft,  for 


THE    LEAF-BUD. 


41 


61,  Cortn  of  Crocus,  with  new  ones  forming  above ;  62,  Vertical  section  of  the  same  ;  63,  Sec- 
tion of  bulb  of  Hyacinth  with  terminal  scape  and  axillary  bulblet ;  64,  Section  of  bulb  of  Oxalifl 
•violacea,  with  axillary  scapes. 

194.  THE  TUBER,  CORM  AND  BULB  ARE  ANALOGOUS  FORMS  approaching  by  degrees 
to  the  character  of  the  bud,  which  consists  of  a  little  axis  bearing'  a  covering  <K 
scales.  In  the  tuber  the  axis  is  excessively  developed  while  the  scales  are  reduced 
to  mere  linear  points.  In  the  conn  the  analogy  is  far  more 
evident,  for  the  axis  is  less  excessive  and  the  scales  more 
manifest,  and  lastly  in  the  bulb  the  analogy  is  complete,  or 
overdone,  the  scales  often  becoming  excessive. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

THE    LEAF-BUD. 

195.  It  is  but  a  step  from  the  study  of  the  bulb 
to  that  of  the  leaf-bud.     Buds  are  of  two  kinds  in 
respect  to  their  contents;  the  leaf-bud  containing 
the  rudiments  of  a  leafy  stem  or  branch,  the  flower - 
bud  containing  the  same  elements  transformed  into 
the  nascent  organs  of  a  flower  for  the  purpose  of 
reproduction. 

196.  THE     LEAF-BUD    consists   of    a  brief,  cone- 
shaped  axis  with   a  tender  growing  point,  bearing  a 
protecting  covering  of  imbricated  scales  and  incip- 
ient leaves. 

65.  Branch  of  pear  tree.  The  terminal  bud  a,  having  been  de- 
stroyed, an  axillary  bud  supplied  its  place,  and  formed  the  axis  &. 
c,  Thickened  branch  -with  flower-buds,  d,  branch  with  leaf-buds. 
66.  t,  section  of  terminal  bud ;  J,  of  axillary  bud. 


42  THE    LEAF-BUD. 

197.  NATURE  OF  THE  SCALES.  The  scaly  envelops  of  the  bud  appear  to  be  either 
the  rudimentary  leaves  or  stipules  of  the  preceding  year,  formed  late  in  the  season, 
arrested  in  their  development  by  the  frosts  and  scanty  nourishment,  and  reduced 
to  a  sear  and  hardened  state.  If  the  bud  of  the  rose,  tulip-tree,  or  horse-chestnut 
be  examined  when  swollen  in  the  spring,  the  student  will  notice  a  gradual  transi- 
tion from  the  outer  scales  to  the  evident  leaves  or  stipules  within. 


67,  Bud  of  currant  unfolding, — the  scales  gradually  becoming  leaves.    68,  Bud  of  tulip-tree, — the 
scales  unfolding  into  stipules. 

198.  It  is  an  interesting  ILLUSTRATION  OF  DESIGNING  WISDOM  that  buds  are  fur- 
nished with  scales  only  in  wintry  climates.     In  the  Torrid  Zone,  or  in  conservatories, 
where  the  temperature  is  equalized  through  the  year,  plants  develop  their  foliage 
into  buds  immediately  after  formation,  without  clothing  them  in  scales.     In  annual 
plants  also,  the  buds  are  destitute  of  scales,  not  being  destined  to  survive  the  win- 
ter.   Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  transformation  of  autumnal  leaves  into  scales, 
is  a  means  ordained  by  the  great  Author  of  Nature  to  protect  the  young  shoots  iu 
their  incipient  stages  from  sudden  cold  and  moisture, — an  office  which  they  effect- 
ually fulfil  by  their  numerous  downy  folds  and  their  insoluble  coat  of  resin. 

199.  How  BUDS  ARE  PROTECTED.     In  many  trees  the  bud-scales  are  clothed  with 
dense,  downy  hairs.     In  others,  as  in  the  horse-chestnut,  balm  of  Gilead,  and  other 
species  of  poplar,  the  buds  are  covered  with  a  viscid,  aromatic  resin,  resembling  a 
coat  of  varnish.     A  considerable  quantity  may  be  separated  from  a  handful  of  such 
buds  in  boiling  water. 

200.  THE  PARENT  BUD.     In  regard  to  position,  buds  are  either  terminal  or  axil- 
lary—a distinction  already  noticed.      The  plumule  of  the  embryo  is  the  original, 
parent  bud,  containing  within  its  minute  organization  the  manifold  parts  of  the  fu- 
ture plant — stem,  leaves,  flower,  fruit — all  to  be  successively  unfolded  in  future 
months  or  years.     The  unfolding  of  this  first  terminal  bud  in  the  one  direction  of  its 
point  produces  the  simple  stem. 

201.  ORIGIN  OF  BRANCHES.     But  in  every  plant  a  special  provision  is  made  for 
the  development  of  branches.     It  is  a  general  law  that  every  expanding  leaf  shall 
subtend  an  infant  bud  in  its  axil,  that  is,  in  the  upper  angle  of  the  insertion  of  the 
leaf-stalk ;  hence  the  plant  may  always  have  as  rAany  axillary  buds  as  it  has  leaves. 

202.  AXILLARY  BUDS  are  especially  noted  as  being  either  ACTIVE  or 


THE    LEAF- BUD. 


43 


LATENT.  In  the  former  case  they  are  unfolded  into  branches  at  once,  or 
in  the  spring  following  their  formation.  But  latent  buds  suspend  their 
activities  from  year  to  year,  or  perhaps  are  never  quickened  into 
growth. 

203.  AXILLARY  BUDS  BECOME  TERMINAL  so  soon  as  their  development 
fairly  commences,  therefore  each  branch  also  has  a  terminal  bud,  and, 
like  the  main  axis,  is  capable  of  extending  its  growth  as  long  as  that 
bud  remains  unharmed.     If  it  be  destroyed  by  violence  or  frost,  or 
should  it  be  transformed  into  a  flower-bud,  the  growth  in  that  direction 
forever  ceases. 

204.  THE  SUPPRESSION  OF  AXILLARY  BUDS  tends,  of  course,  to  sim- 
plify the  form  of  the  plant.     Their  total  suppression  during  the  first 
year's  growth  of  the  terminal  bud  is  common,  as  in  the  annual  stem  of 
mullein  and  in  most  perennial  stems.     When  axillary  buds  remain  per- 
manently latent,  and  only  the  terminal  bud  unfolds  year  after  year,  a 
simple,  branchless  trunk,  crowned  with  a  solitary  tuft  of  leaves,  is  the 
result,  as  in  the  palmetto  of  our 

southern  borders. 

205.  A     PARTIAL      SUPPRESSION     OP 

BUDS  occurs  in  almost  all  species,  and 
generally  in  some  definite  order.  In 
plants  with  opposite  leaves,  sometimes 
one  bud  of  the  pair  at  each  node  is  de- 
veloped and  the  other  is  suppressed,  as 
in  the  pink  tribe  (Caryophyllacese). 
When  both  buds  are  developed,  the 
branches,  appearing  in  pairs  like  arms, 
are  said  to  be  brachiate,  as  in  the  Labiatse. 
In  many  trees  the  terminal  buds  are  ar- 
rested by  inflorescence  each  season,  and 
the  growth  is  continued  by  axillary  buds 
alone,  as  in  the  Catalpa  and  horse-chest- 
nut. In  all  trees,  indeed,  buds  are  sup- 
pressed more  or  less,  from  various  causes, 
disguising  at  length  the  intended  sym- 
metry of  the  branches,  to  the  utter  con- 
fusion of  twigs  and  spray. 

206.  ACCESSORY  BUDS,  one  or  more, 
are  sometimes  found  just  above  the  true 
axillary  bud,  or  clustered  with  it,  and 
only   distinguished    from    it    by  their 
smaller  size  :  as  in  the  cherry  and  honey- 
suckle. 


Hypericum    Sarothra,    with    brachiate 
branches.     70,  Pink  (Dianthus)— axilla;, 
alternately  suppressed. 


207.  ADVENTITIOUS  OR  ACCIDENTAL  BJJDS  are  such  as  are  neither  ter- 
minal nor  axillary.      They  occasionally  appear  on   any  part  of  the 


44 


THE   LEAP   BUD. 


plant  in  the  internodes  of  the  stem  or  branches,  on  the  root,  or  eve, 
leaves. 

208.  CAUSES  AND  EXAMPLES.     Such  buds  generally  result  from  som 
abnormal  condition  of  the  plant,  from  pruning  or  other  destruction  <•• 
branches  or  stem  above,  while  the  roots  remain  in  full  vigor;  thus  dc 
stroying  the  equilibrium  of  vital  force  between  the  upper  and  lowe. 
axis.     The  leaf  of  the  walking-fern  emits  rootlets  and  buds  at  its  apex* 
the  leaf  of  Bryophyllum  from  its  margin,  each  bud  here  also  preceded  b; 
a  rootlet.     Some  plants  are  thus  artificially  propagated  in  conservato- 
ries from  the  influence  of  heat  and  moisture  on  a  leaf  or  the  fragment 
of  a  leaf. 

209.  VERNATION  OB  PR^EFOLIATION  are  terms  denoting  the  mode  o 
arrangement  and  folding  of  the  leaf-organs  composing  the  bud.     Thi 
arrangement  is  definitely  varied  in  different  orders  of  plants,  furnishir^ 
useful  distinctions  in  systematic  botany. 

210.  THE  VERNATION  OF  THE  BUD  is  EXHIBITED  in  an  interesting  mau 
ner  by  making  with  a  keen  instrument  a  cross-section  of  it  in  its  swolle* 
state,  just  before  expansion  ;  or  it  may  be  well  observed  by  removin. 
one  by  one  the  scales. 

211.  THE  FORMS  OF  VERNATION   are  entirely  analogous  to  those  o 
aestivation,  and  denoted  by  similar  terms.     We  shall  here  notice  onl 
such  as  are  more  peculiar  to  the  leaf-buds. 

212.  VERNATION  is  considered    in   two   different  aspects,  first,  th 
manner  in  which  the  leaf  itself  is  folded  ;  second,  the  arrangement  > 
the  leaves   in  respect  to  each  other.     This  depends  much  upon  th 
phyllotaxy.   (§  220.) 

71  72  73  74  75  76 


Vernation,  71,  of  oak  leaf  ;  72,  of  Liriodcndron  (tulip  tree)  ;  73,  of  fern  ; 
75,  sage;  76,  iris. 


r4,  of  carex; 


213.  EACH  LEAF  ALONE  CONSIDERED  is  either  flat  and  open,  as  in  thd 
mistletoe,  or  it  is  folded  or  rolled,  as  follows : 

Reclined,  when  folded  crosswise  with  apex  bent  over  forward  towards 
the  base  as  in  the  tulip-tree. 

Conduplicate,  when  folded  perpendicularly,  with  the  lateral  halves 
brought  together,  face  to  face,  as  in  the  oak. 


THE    LEAP    BUD. 


45 


Plaited  or  plicate,  each  leaf  folded  like  a  fan ;  vine,  birch. 

Circinate,  when  each  leaf  is  rolled  or  coiled  downwards  from  the 
apex,  as  in  the  sun-dew  and  ferns. 

Convolute,  the  leaf  wholly  rolled  up  from  one  of  its  sides,  as  in  the 
cherry.  Involute,  having  both  edges  rolled  inwards  as  in  apple,  violet 
J£evolute,vfiih  both  margins  rolled 
outwards  and  backwards,  as  in  the 
dock,  willow,  rosemary. 

'    .          77 


91 


camore  bud. 


Vernation.  77,  pf  birch  leaf ;   73,  of  lilac,  (imbricate) ;  79,  cherry  leaves,  (convolute) ;  80,  dock 
bud,  (revolute) ;  81,  balm  of  Gilead,  (involute). 

214.  THE  GENERAL  VERNATION  is  loosely  distinguished  in  descriptive 
botany  as  valvate  (edges  meeting),  and  imbricate  (edges 
overlapping),  terms  to  be  noticed  hereafter.     The  val- 
vate more  often  occurs  in  plants  with  opposite  leaves. 

Imbricated  vernation  is 

EQUITANT  (riding  astraddle),  when  conduplicate  leaves 
alternately  embrace — the  outer  one  the  next  inner,  by  82.  Vernation  of  Syl 
its  unfolded  margins,  as  in  the  privet  and  iris. 

OBVOLUTE,  or  half-equitant,  when  the  outer  leaf< 
embraces  only  one  of  the  margins  of  the  inner, 
as  in  the  sage. 

TRIQUETROUS,  where  the  bud  is  triangular  in  sec- 
tion, and  the  leaves  equitant  at  each  angle,  as  in 
the  Carices. 

215.  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  BUDDING.  Each  leaf-bud 
may  be  regarded  as  a  distinct  individual,  capable  of 
vegetating  either  in  its  native  position,  or  when 
removed  to  another,  as  is  extensively  practiced  in 
the  important  operation  of  budding. 

216.  BULBLETS.  In  the  tiger-lilv,  Cicuta  bulbifera, ., 

e          -'  '  S3, 84,  Showing  the  process 

and  Aspidmm  bulbiferum,  the  axillary  buds  spon-         of  "budding." 
taneously  detach  themselves,  fall  to  the  ground,  and  become  new  plants. 
These  remarkable  little  bodies  are  called  bulblets. 


46 


THE    LEAF. 


CHAPTER     VII. 

THE     LEAF. 

217.  ITS  IMPORTANCE.     The   leaf  constitutes  the  verdure  of  plants, 
and  is  by  far  the  most  conspicuous  and  beautiful  object  in  the  scenery 
of  nature.     It  is  also  of  the  highest  importance  in  the  vegetable  econ- 
omy, being  the  organ  of  digestion  and  respiration. 

218.  THE  LEAF  is  CHARACTERIZED  by  a  thin  and  expanded  form, 
presenting  the  largest  possible  surface  to  the  action  of  the  air  and  light, 
•which  agents  are  indispensable  to  the  life  and  increase  of  the  plant. 

219.  THE  COLOR  OF  THE  LEAF  is  almost  universally  green,  which  of  all  colors  is 
the  most  agreeable  to  the  eye ;  but  its  intensity  varies  by  infinite  shades,  and  is 
often  finely  contrasted  with  the  more  delicate  tints  of  the  flower.     Towards  maturity 
its  verdure  is  changed,  often  to  the  most  brilliant  hues,  as  red,  crimson,  orange,  yel- 
low, giving  our  autumnal  forest  scenery  a  gaiety,  variety,  and  splendor  of  coloring 
which  the  wildest  fancy  could  scarcely  surpass. 


PHYLLOTAXY,  OB  LEAF-ARRANGEMENT. 

220.  As  the  position  of  the  leaf  upon  the  stem  marks  the  position  of  the  axillary 
bud,  it  follows  that  the  order  of  the  leaf-arrangement  will  be  the  order  of  the 
.branches  also.  The  careful  investigation  of  this  subject  has  developed  a  science  of 
unexpected  exactness  and  beauty,  called  phyllotaxy  (0£A/lov,  a  leaf,  rafij-,  order.) 


88 


66,  Ladies'-slippcr  (leaves  alternate)  ;  86.  Synandra  grandiflora  (leaves  opposite) ;  88,  Medeola 
Yirginica  (leaves  verticillate)  ;  87,  Larix  Americana  (leaves  fasciculate). 


PHYLLOTAXY,  OR  LEAF-ARRANGEMENT. 


47 


221.  POSITION  UPON  THE  STEM.     Leaves  are  radical  when  they  grow 
out  of  the  stem  at  or  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  so  as  to  appear 
to  grow  from  the  roots  ;  cauline  when  they  grow  from  the  stem,  and 
ramial  (ramus,  a  branch),  when  from  the  branches. 

222.  INSERTION   UPON  THE  AXIS.     The   arrangement  of  the   scales 
and  young  leaves  in  the  bud  appears  to  be  in  close,  contiguous  circles. 
By  the  development  of  the  axis  the  leaves  are  separated,  and  their  order 
variously  modified,  according  to  the  following  general  modes  : — 

Alternate,  one  above  another  on  opposite  sides,  as  in  the  elm. 

Scattered,  irregularly  spiral,  as  in  the  potato  vine. 

Rosulate,  clustered  regularly,  like  the  petals  of  a  rose,  as  in  the 
plantain  and  shepherd's-purse. 

Fasciculate,  tufted,  clustered  many  together  in  the  axil,  as  seen  in  the 
pine,  larch,  berberry. 

Opposite,  two,  against  each  other,  at  the  same  node.     Ex.  maple. 

Vertidllate,  or  whorled,  more  than  two  in  a  circle  at  each  node,  as 
in  the  meadow-lily,  trumpet-weed.  We  may  reduce  all  these  modes  to 

223.  Two   GENERAL  TYPES, — the  alternate,  including  all  cases  with 
one  leaf  at  each  node, — the*  opposite,  including  cases  with  two  or  more 
leaves  at  each  node. 

224.  THE  TRUE  CHARACTER  OF  THE  ALTERNATE  TYPE  may  be  learned 
by  an  experiment.     Take  a  straight  leafy  shoot  or  stem  of  the  elni  or 
flax,  or  any  other  plant  with  seemingly  scattered  leaves,  and  beginning 
with  the  lowest  leaf,  pass  a  thread  to  the  next  above,  thence  to  the  next 
in  the  same  direction,  and  so  on  by  all  the  leaves  to  the  top  ;  the  thread 
will  form  a  regular  spiral. 

225.  FASCICULATE  LEAVES  are  the  members  of  an  undeveloped  branch,  and  in 


Phyllotaxy.    89,  leafy  branch  of  elm,— cycle  |.    90,  leafy  branch  of  alder,— cycle  £  ;   91,   leafy 
brunch  of  cherry, — cycle  f  • 


48 


PHYLLOTAXY,    OB   LBAF    ARRANGEMENT. 


case  of  the  subsequent  development  of  the  branch,  as  often  occurs  in  the  Berb- 
eris  and  larch,  their  spiral  arrangement  becomes  manifest  In  the  pines  the  fas- 
cicles have  fewer  leaves,  their  number  being  definite  and  characteristic  of  the  species. 
Thus  P.  strobus,  the  white  pine,  has  5  leaves  in  each  fascicle,  P.  palustris,  tho  long- 
leaved  pine,  has  3,  P.  inops,  2. 

226.  THE  OPPOSITE  LEAVED  TYPE  is  also  spiral.     The  leaves  in  each  circle, 
whether  two  or  more,  are  equidistant,  dividing  the  circumference  of  the  stem  into 
equal  arcs.     The  members  of  the  second  circle  are  not  placed  directly  above  those 
of  the  first,  but  are  turned,  as  it  were,  to  the  right  or  left,  so  as  to  stand  over  the 
intervening  spaces.     Hence  there  may  be  traced  as  many  spirals  as  there  are  leaves 
in  each  whorl. 

227.  DECUSSATE  LEAVES  result  from  this  law,  as  in  the  motherwort 
and  all  the  mint  tribe,  where  each  pair  of  opposite  leaves  crosses  in  di- 
rection the  next  pair,'  forming  four  vertical  rows  of  leaves.     Therefore, 
it  is 

228.  AN  ESTABLISHED  LAW  that  the  course  of  development  in  the 
growing  plant  is  universally  spiral.     But  this,  the  formative  cycle  as  it 
is  called,  has  several  variations. 


93 


92 


92,  93,  94,  showing  the  course  of  the  spiral  thread  and  the  order  of  the  leaf-succession  in  the 
axes  of  elm,  alder,  and  cherry.  95,  axis  of  Osage-orange  with  a  section  of  the  bark  peeled,  dis- 
playing the  order  of  the  leaf-scars  (cycle  f ). 

229.  THE  ELM  CYCLE.    In  the  strictly  alternate  arrangement  (elm,  linden,  grasses) 
the  spiral  thread  makes  one  complete  circuit  and  commences  a  new  one  at  the  third 
leaf     The  third  leaf  stands  over  the  first,  the  fourth  over  the  second,  and  so  on, 
forming  two  vertical  rows  of  leaves.     Here  (calling  each  complete  circuit  a  cyck) 
we  observe 

230.  FIRST,  That  this  cycle  is  composed  of  two  leaves ;  second,  that  the  angu- 
lar distance  between  its  leaves  is  £  a  cycle  (180°);  third,  if  we  express  this  cycle 
mathematically  by  £,  the  numerator  (1)  will  denote  the  turns  or  revolutions,  the  de- 
nominator (2)  its  leaves,  and  the  fraction  itself  the  angular  distance  between  the 
leaves  (£  of  3 6Qo). 


PHYLLOTAXY,    OR   LEAF    ARRANGEMENT. 


49 


231.  THE  ALDER  CYCLE.    In  the  alder,  birch,  sedges,  &c.,  the  cycle  is  not  com- 
plete until  the  fourth  leaf  is  reached.     The  fourth  leaf  stands  over  the  first,  the  fifth 
over  the  second,  &c.,  forming  three  vertical  rows.     Here  call  the  cycle  £ ;  1  denotes 
the  turns,  3  the  leaves,  and  this  fraction  itself  the  angular  distance  (£  of  360°). 

232.  THE  CHERRY  CYCLE.     In  the  cherry,  apple,  peach,  oak,  willow,  etc.,  neither 
the  third  nor  the  fourth  leaf,  but  the  sixth,  stands  over  the  first ;   and  in  order  to 
reach  it  the  thread  makes  two  turns  around  the  stem.     The  sixth  leaf  is  over  the 
first,  the  seventh  over  the  second,  &a,  forming  five  vertical  rows.     Cr.ll  this  the  § 
cycle ;  2  denotes  the  turns,  5  the  leaves  in  the  cycle,  and  the  fraction  itself  the  an- 
gular distance  (f  of  360°). 

233.  THE  Os AGE-ORANGE  CYCLE.     In  the  common  hedge  plant,  Osage-orange, 
the  holly,  evening  primrose,  flax,  etc.,  we  find  no  leaf  exactly  over  the  first  until  we 
come  to  the  9th,  and  in  reaching  it  the  spiral  makes  three  turns.     Here  the  leaves 
form  eight  vertical  rows.     It  is  a  f-  cycle  ;  3  the  number  of  turns,  8  the  number  of 
leaves,  and  the  fraction  the  angular  distance  between  the  leaves  (f  of  360°). 

234.  THE  CYCLES  COMPARED.     These  several  fractions  which  represent  the  above 
cycles  form  a  series  as  follows :  £,  £,  |,  f ,  in  which  each  term  is  the  sum  of  the  two 
preceding.     The  fifth  terms  in  order  will,  therefore,  be  ^ ;  and  this  arrangement  is 
actually  realized  in 


M 


96,  Phyllotaxy  of  the  cone  (cycle  7*)  of  Pinus  serotina.      97,  cherry  cycle  (?),  as  seen  from 
above,  forming  necessarily  that  kind  of  aestivation  called  quincuntial. 

235.  THE  WHITE  PINE  CYCLE.    In  the  young  shoots  of  the  white  pine,  in  cones 
of  most  pines,  in  flea-bane  (Erigeron  Canadense),  etc.,  the  fourteenth  leaf  stands  over 
the  first,  the  fifteenth  over  the  second,  etc.     The  spiral  thread  makes  five  revolu- 
tions to  complete  the  cycle,  which  is,  therefore,  truly  expressad  by  _«_. 

236.  THE  HOUSELEEK  CYCLE  is  next  in  order,  expressed  by  the  fraction  (q^3) 
£L  having  eight  turns  and  twenty-one  leaves.     Examples  are  found  in  the  Scotch 
pine,  houselcek.  &c. 

237.  How  TO  DETERMINE  THE  HIGHER  CYCLES.     To  trace  the  course  of  the  for- 
mative spiral  in  these  higher  cycles  becomes  difficult  on  account  of  the  close  prox- 
imity of  tho  loaves.     Tn  the  pine  cone  (Fig.  96,  Pinus  serotina)  several  sets  of  sec- 
ondary spirals  are  seen ;  one  set  of  five  parallel  spirals  turning  right  (1 — 6 — 11 — 16, 


50 


THE    ROOT,    OR   DESCENDING   AXIS. 


etc.,  the  common  difference  being  also  five)  ;  two  sets  (one  of  three,  the  other  of 
eight)  turning  left  ;  and  still  another  set,  of  thirteen,  steepest  of  all,  turning  right 
(1  —  14  —  27,  etc.).  Now  the  sum  of  the  spirals  contained  in  the  two  steepest  sets  gives 
the  denominator  of  the  fraction  expressing  the  true  formative  spiral  sought.  Thus, 
8-}-13=21.  The  numerator  corresponding  is  already  known,  and  the  fraction  is 
JL.  See  also  the  white  pine  cone,  whose  cycle  is  -5r>. 

238.  Diagram  97  represents  the  leaves  of  a  cherry  cycle  as  seen  from  above,  and 
verified  in  the  aestivation  of  the  flowers  in  the  rose-family. 

MORPHOLOGY    OF   THE   LEAF. 

239.  GENERAL  CHARACTER.     The  leaf  may  be  regarded  as  an  expan- 
sion of  the  substance  of  the  bark,  extended  into  a  broad  thin  plate  by 
means  of  a  woody  frame  work  or  skeleton,  issuing  from  the  inner  part 
of  the  stem.     The  expanded   portion   is  called  the  lamina  or  blade  of 
the  leaf,  and  it  is  either  sessile,  that  is,  attached  to  the  stem  by  its  base, 
or  it  is  petiolate,  attached  to  the  stem  by  a  footstalk  called  the  petiole. 

240.  STIPULES.     But  the  regular  petiole  very  often  bears  at  its  base 

a  pair  of  leaf-like  appendages,  more  or  less  ap- 
parent, called  stipules.  Leaves  so  appendaged 
are  said  to  be  stipulate,  otherwise  they  are  ex- 
stipulate. 

241.  Therefore  a  complete   leaf   consists  of 
three  distinct  parts  ;  the  lamina  or  blade,  the 
petiole,  and  the  stipules. 

242.  TRANSFORMATIONS.      Both  the   petiole, 
blade  and  stipules  are  subject  to  numerous  mod- 
ifications of  form.     Either  of  them   may  exist 
without  the  others,  or  they  may  all  be  transformed 
into  other  organs,  as  pitchers,  spines,  tendrils, 
and  even  into  the  organs  of  the  flower,  as  will 

j  hereafter  appear. 

OF  THE  PETIOLE. 


243.  THE  FORM  OF  THE  DISTINCT  PETIOLE  is 
rarely  cylindrical,  but  more  generally  flattened 
or  channeled   on  the   upper  side.     When  it  is 
flattened  in  a  vertical  direction,  it  is  said  to  be 
compressed,  as  in  the  aspen  or  poplar.     In  this 
case  the  blade  is  very  unstable,  and  agitated  by 
the  least  breath  of  wind. 

244.  THE  WINGED  PETIOLE  is  flattened  or  ex- 


93.  Leaf  of  willow  (Saiix 

lucida)  ;   s,  the  stipules.    The 
raidvein  is    3-lined  ;  veinlets 

2-iined  ;veinuiets  single-lined.  panded  into  a  margin,  but   laterally  instead  of 

99,  clover  leaves  ;«,  stipules,  ^  .  o    J       . 

p  petiole  i  leaflets  vertically,  as   in    the   asters.      Sometimes   the 


OF    THE    STIPULES.  51 

margins  outrun  the  petioles,  and  extend  down  the  stem,  making  that 
winged  or  alate  also.  Such  leaves  are  said  to  be  decurrent  (decurro, 
run  down).  Ex.  Mullein. 

245.  THE  AMPLEXICAUL  OR  STEM-CLASPING  PETIOLE  is  dilated  at  the 
base  into  a   margin   which  surrounds  or  clasps  the  stem,  as  in  the 
umbilifers.      Frequently  we   find  the    stem-clasping   margins   largely 
developed,  constituting  a  sheath — with  free  edges  in  the  grasses,  or 
closed  into  a  tube  in  the  sedges. 

246.  The  petiole  is  simple   in  the  simple  leaf,  but  compound   or 
branched  in  the  compound  leaf,  with  as  many  branches   (petiolules) 
as  there  are  divisions  of  the  lamina. 

OF   THE   STIPULES. 

247.  STIPULES  are  certain  leaf-like  expansions,  always  in  pairs,  situated 
one  on  each  side  of  the  petiole  near  the  base.     They  do  not  occur  in 
every  plant,  but  are  pretty  uniformly  present  in  each  species  of  the  same 
natural  order.     In  substance  and  color  they  usually  resemble  the  leaf, 
sometimes  they  are  colored  like  the  stem,  often  they  are  membranous 
and  colorless.     In  the  palmetto  its  substance  is  a  coarse  net-work  re- 
sembling canvass. 

100  101 


100,  Rose  leaf,  odd-pin uate,  with  ndnate  stipules.    101,  Violet,  (V.  tricolor),  with  simple  leaf 
(  l\  and  free  compound  stipules. 

248.  STIPULES  ARE  OFTEN  ADXATE  or  adherent  to  the  petiole,  as  in 
the  rose ;  more  generally  they  are  free,  as  in  the  pea  and  pansy.   In  these 
cases  and  others  they  act  the  part  of  leaves  ;  again  they  are  very  small 
and  inconspicuous. 

249.  AN  OCHREA  is  a  membranous  sheath  inclosing  the  stem  from 
the   node  upwards,  as  in  the  knot-grass  family  (Polygonaceae).    It  is 
formed  of  the  two  stipules  cohering  by  their  two  margins.     In  case  the 
two  stipules  cohere  by  their  outer  margin  only,  a  double  stipule  is 
formed  opposite  to  the  leaf,  as  in  the  button-wood.     If  they  cohere  by 
their  inner  margin,  the  double  stipule  appears  in  the  leaf  axil,  as  in  the 
pond-weed  (Potamogeton). 


52 


OF   THE    VEINS. 


250.  INTER-PETIOLAR  STIPULES  occur  in  a  few  opposite  leaved  tribes,  as  the  Ga- 
lium  tribe.  Here  we  find  them  as  mere  bristles  in  Diodia  while  in  Galium  they 
look  like  the  leaves,  forming  whorls.  Such  whorls,  if  complete,  will  be  appar- 
ently 6-leaved,  consisting  of  two  true  leaves  and  four  stipules.  But  the  adjacent 
stipules  are  often  united,  and  the  whorl  becomes  4-leaved. 


102     103      104      106 

102,  Leaf  of  Conioselinum,  tripinnate,  with  sheathing  petiole.  103,  Leaf  of  Polygonum  Penn- 
sylvanicum,  with  its  (o)  ochrea.  104,  Culm  of  grass,  with  joint  (j),  leaf  (1)  ligule  («).  105,  Leaf 
of  pear-tree,  with  slender  stipules. 

251.  THE  LIGULE  of  grasses  is  generally  regarded  as  a  double  axil- 
lary stipule.     The  leaflets  of  compound  leaves  are  sometimes  furnished 
with  little  stipules,  called  stipels. 

252.  STIPULES  ARE  OFTEN  FUGACIOUS,  existing  as  scales  in  the  budr 
and  falling  when  the  leaves  expand,  or  soon  after,  as  in  the  Magnolia 
and  tulip-tree. 

OF     THE    VEINS. 

253.  LEAVES,  SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND.     A  leaf  is  simple  when  its 
blade  consists  of  a  single  piece,  however  cut,  cleft  or  divided ;  and  com- 
pound when  it  consists  of  several  distinct  blades,  supported  by  as  man) 
branches  of  a  compound  petiole. 

254.  NATURE  OF  VEINS.     The  blade  of  the  leaf  consists  of,  (1)  the 
frame-wovk,  and  (2)  the  tissue  commonly  called  the  parenchyma.    The 
frame-work  is  made  up  of  the  branching  vessels  of  the  foot-stalk,  which 
are  woody  tubes  pervading  the  parenchyma,  and  conveying  nourishment 
to  every  part.     Collectively,  these  vessels  are  called  veins,  from  the 
analogy  of  their  functions. 

255.  VENATION  is  a  term  denoting  the  manner  in  which  the  veins 
are  divided  and  distributed.     The  several  organs  of  venation,  differing 
from  each  other  only  in  size  and  position,  may  be  termed  the  midvein, 
veins,  veinlets  and  veinulets.     (The  old  terms,  midrib  and  nerves,  being 
anatomically  absurd,  are  here  discarded). 

256.  THE  MIDVEIN  is  the  principal  axis  of  the  venation,  or  prolong- 
ation of  the  petiole,  running  directly  through  the  lamina,  from  base  to 


OF   THE    VEINS. 


53 


apex,  as  seen  in  the  leaf  of  the  oak  or  birch.  If  there  be  several  simi- 
lar divisions  of  the  petiole,  radiating  from  the  base  of  the  leaf,  they  are 
appropriately  termed  veins  ;  and  the  leaf  is  said  to  be  three-veined, 
five-veined,  etc.  Ex.  maple. 

257.  The  primary  branches  sent  off  from  the  midvein,  or  the  veins 
we  may  term  the  VEINLETS,  and  the  secondary  branches,  or  those  sent 
off  from  the  veinlets,  are  the  VEINULETS.  These  also  branch  and  subdi- 
vide until  they  become  too  small  for  vision. 


106  109 

Varieties  of  venation.  106,  feather-veined,— leaf  of  Betula  populifolia  (white  birch),  lying  upon 
a  leaf  of  plum-tree ;  same  venation  with  different  outlines.  107,  Palmate-veined, — leaf  of  white 
maple,  contrasted  with  leaf  of  Circis  Canadensis.  108,  Parallel  venation, — plant  of  "three-leaved 
Solomon's-seal,"  (Asteranthemum  trifoliatum  Kunth.)  109,  Forked  venation,— climbing  fern 
(Lygodium). 

258.  MODES  OF  VENATION.  Botanists  distinguish  three  principa. 
modes  of  venation,  which  are  in  general  characteristic  of  the  three 
grand  divisions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  already  noticed. 

RETICULATE,  OR  NET- VEINED,  as  in  the  Exogens  :  this  kind  of  vena- 
tion is  characterized  by  the  frequent  reunion  or  inosculation  of  its  nu- 
merously branching  veins,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  irregular  net-work. 

PARALLEL- VEINED,  as  in  the  Endogens.  The  veins,  whether  straight 
or  curved,  run  parallel,  or  side  by  side,  to  the  apex  of  the  leaf,  or  to  the 
margin,  and  are  always  connected  by  simple  transverse  veinlets. 

FORK-VEINED,  as  in  the  ferns  (and  other  Cryptogamia,  where  veins 
are  present  at  all).  Here  the  veins  divide  and  subdivide  in  a  furcate 
manner,  and  do  not  re-unite. 


54 


FORM    OR   FIGURE. 


259.  Of  the  reticulate  venation,  the  student  should  carefully  note 
three  leading  forms,  the  feather-veined,  the  palmate-veined,  and  the 
triple-veined. 

THE  FEATHER-VEINED  (pinni-veined)  leaf  is  that  in  which  the  venation 
consists  of  a  midvein  giving  off  at  intervals  lateral  veinlets  and  branch- 
ing veinulets.  Ex.  beech,  chestnut. 

260.  IN  THE  RADIATE-VEINED  (palmi-veined)  leaf  the  venation  con- 
sists  of   several  veins  of  nearly   equal  size,    radiating  from  the   base 
towards  the  circumference,  each  with  its  own  system  of  veinlets.     Ex. 
maple,  crow-foot. 

261.  THE  TRIPLI-VEINED  seems  to  be  a  form  intermediate  between 
the  two  others  when  the  lowest   pair  of  veinlets    are  conspicuously 
stronger  than  the  others  above  them  towards  the  apex,  extending  with 
the  midvein  towards  the  summit. 

262.  IN  PARALLEL-VEINED  venation  the  veins  are  either  straight,  as 
in  the  linear  leaf  of  the  grasses,  curved,  as  in  the  oval  leaf  of  the 
orchis,  or  transverse  as  in  the  Canna,  Calla,  &c. 


FORM   OR   FIGURE. 
114 


115 


111 


110  118 

Forms  of  leaves.  110,  Ehododendron  maximum.  Ill,  Alnus  glntinosa  (cult).  112,  Poly- 
gonum  sagittatum.  113,  Pawpaw.  114,  Impaticns  fulva.  115,  Celtis  Americana.  116,  Circaea 
Lutetiana.  117,  Catmint.  118,  Solidago  Canadensis— a  triple-veined  leaf. 

263.  THAT  INFINITE  VARIETY  of  beautiful  and  graceful  forms  for  which  the  leaf  i.s 
distinguished  becomes  intelligible  to  the  student  only  when  viewed  in  connection 
with  its  venation.  Since  it  is  through  the  veins  alone  that  nutriment  is  conveyed 
for  the  development  and  extension  of  the  parenchyma,  it  follows  that  there  will  be 
the  greatest  extension  of  outline  when  the  veins  are  largest  and  most  numerous. 
Consequently  the  form  of  the  loaf  will  depend  upon  the  direction  of  the  veins  and 
the  vigor  of  their  action  in  developing  the  intervening  tissue.  In  our  description 


FORM    OR    FIGURE. 


of  individual  forms  of  outline  we  shall  select  only  the  most  remarkable,  leaving 
others  for  explanation  in  the  glossary. 

264.  THE  MOST  OBVIOUS  ARRANGEMENT  is  that  which  is  founded  upon  the  modes 
of  veining ;  but  it  should  be  premised  that  different  forms  of  venation  often  give  rise 
to  the  same  outline.  Were  we  required  to  characterize  our  idea  of  the  abstract 
typical  leaf-form,  we  should  sketch  an  oval  outline  of  surface,  with  equal  sides  and 
unequal  ends.  The  nearest  approach  to  this  we  find  among  the 


118 


125        126 


Diagrams  of  pinnate-veined  leaf-forms. 

119,  orbicular,  124,  spathulate, 

120,  oval,  125,  oblanceolate, 

121,  elliptical,  126,  obovate, 

122,  oblong,  127,  deltoid, 

123,  cuneiform.  123,  lanceolate, 

129,  ovate. 

265.  FEATHER-VEINED  LEAVES.     Of  these,  the  following 
forms  depend  upon  the  length  of  the  veinlets  in  relation 

to  each  other  and  to  the  midvein.  When  the  lower  veinlets  are  longer 
than  the  others,  the  form  of  the  blade  will  be  (1)  ovate,  with  the  out- 
line of  an  egg,  the  broad  end  at  the  base ;  (2)  lanceolate,  or  lance- 
shaped,  narrower  than  ovate,  tapering  gradually  upwards ;  (3)  deltoid  or 
triangular- shaped,  like  the  Greek  letter  A. 

a.  IF  THE  MIDDLE  VEINLETS  EXCEED  the  others  in  length,  the  leaf  will 
be  (4)  orbicular,  roundish  or  quite  circular ;  (5)  elliptical,  with  the 
outline  of  an  ellipse,  nearly  twice  longer  than  broad ;  (6)  oval,  broadly 
elliptical ;  (7)  oblong,  narrowly  elliptical. 

266.  WHEN  THE  VEIXLETS  ARE  MORE  LARGELY  DEVELOPED  IN  THE 
UPPER  REGION  OF  THE  LEAF   its  form  becomes  (8)  obovate,  inversely 
ovate,  the  narrow  end  at  base ;  (9)  oblanceolate,  that  is,  lanceolate  with 
the  narrow  end  at  base;  (10)  spatulate,  like  a  spatula,  with  a  narrow 
base  and  a  broader,  rounded  apex;  (11)  cuneate  or  cuneiform,  shaped 
like  a  wedge  with  the  point  backwards. 

267.  AGAIN,  IF  THE  LOWEST  PAIR  OF  VEINLETS  ARE  LENGTHENED  AND 
MORE  OR  LESS  RECURVED,  the  leaf  will  be  variously  modified  in  respect 
to  its  base,  becoming  (12)   cordate,  or  heart-shaped,   an  ovate   outline 
with  a  sinus  or  reentering  angle  at  base;  (13)  auriculate,  with  ear- 
shaped   lobes  at  base;    (14)   sagittate,  arrow-shaped,  with   the  lobes 
pointed,  and  directed  backwards;  (15)  hastate, halbert-shaped,  the  lobes 
directed  outwards. 


56 


FORM    OR   FIGURE. 


268.  PINNATIFID  FORMS.    The   following  pinnate-veined   forms,  ap- 
proaching the  compound  leaf,  depend  less  upon  the  proportion  of  the 


130  181  132  183 

Forms  of  leaves.  130,  Silene  Virpinica.  181,  Magnolia  Fraseri.  136,  Arabis  dentaU. 
187,  Polygonum  arifolium.  132,  Hepatica  acutiloba.  133,  Asarum  Virginicum.  134,  Hydro- 
cotyle  Americana.  1«5,  H.  umbellata. 

veinlets  than  upon  the  relative  development  of  the  intervening  tissue. 
The  prefix  pinnated  is  obviously  used  in  contrast  with palmated  among 
palmate-veined  forms. 


Feather-veined  leaves,  approaching  the  compound.  138,  Quercas  imbricaria— undulate. 
139,  Q.  alba  (white  oak)— lobate-sinuate.  140,  Q.  ira-rocarpa— lyrate.  141,  Mulgedium  (milk- 
weed). 142,  Bipinnatifid  leaf  of  Ambrosia  artemisifolia  (hog-weed). 

269.  PINNATIFID  (pinna,  feather,  findo,  to  cleave)  FEATHER-CLEFT, 
the  tissue  somewhat  sharply  cleft  between  the  veinlets  about  half  way 
to  the  midvein,  forming  oblong  segments.  When  the  segments  of  a 
pinnatifid  leaf  are  pointed  and  curved  backward  it  becomes  runcinate, 
i.  e.j  re-uncinate.  When  the  terminal  segment  of  a  pinnatifid  leaf  is 


FORM    OR   FIGURE.  57 

orbicular  in  figure  and  larger  than  any  other,  presenting  the  form  of  the 
ancient  lyre,  the  form  is  termed  lyrate. 

143 


Feather-veined  leaves  almost  compound.    143,  Nigella  (pinnatis^ct).    144,  Cheledonium  ma- 
jns.    145,  Thistle  (Cirsium  lanceolattim).    146,  Dandelion  (runcinate-lyrate). 

270.  PINNATELY  PARTED  implies  that  the  incisions  are  deeper  than 
pinnatifid,  nearly  reaching  the  midvein.     In  either  case  the  leaf  is  said 
to  be  sinuate  when  the  incisions  (sinuses)   as  well  as  the  segments  are 
rounded  and  flowing  in  outline.     Such  segments  are  lobes,  and  the  leaves 
lobate  or  lobed,  a  very  generic  term. 

271.  THE  PALMATE  VENATION  presents  us  with  a  set  of  forms  which 
are,  in  general,  broader  in  proportion  than  the  pinnate,  having  the 
breadth  about  equaling  the  length.     Such  a  leaf  may  be  rarely  broadly 
ovate  or  broadly  cordate ',  terms  which  require  no  further  explanation. 
Or  it  may  be 

Reniform,  kidney-shaped,  having  a  flowing  outline  broader  than  long, 
concave  at  base  ;  or 

Peltate,  shield-form,  the  petiole  not  inserted  at  the  margin  but  in  the 
midst  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  blade.  This  singular  form  evidently 
results  from  the  blending  of  the  base  lobes  of  a  deeply  cordate  leaf,  as 
seen  in  hydrocotyle.  It  may  be  orbicular,  oval,  etc. 

272.  PALMATE  FORMS.     The  following  result  from  deficiency  of  tis- 
sue, causing  deep  divisions  between  the  veins.     Leaves  thus  dissected 
are  said  to  be  palmately -lobed  when  either  the  segments  or  the  sinuses 
are  somewhat  rounded  and  continuous.     The  number  of  lobes  is  de- 
noted bv  such  terms  as  bilobate,  trilobate,  Jive-lobed,  etc. 


Palmate-veined  leaves.    147,  Menispermura  Canadense.    148,  Passiflora' cerulea.    149,  Brous- 
sonetia  papyrifera.    150,  Oak  geranium. 

Leaves  are  palmatdy  deft  and  palmately  parted,  according  to  the 
the  incisions  as  above  described.     But  the  most  peculiar  raodi- 


151 


152 


fication  is 

273.  THE   PEDATE,    like    a   bird's   foot, 
having  the  lowest  pair  of  veinlets  enlarged, 
recurved,  and  bearing  each  several  of  the 
segments  (148). 

274.  THE    FORMS    OF    THE    PARALLEL- 
VEINED  LEAVES  are  remarkable  for  their 
even,  flowing   outlines,    diversified   solely 
by  the  direction  and  curvature  of  the  veins. 
When  the  veins  are  straight  the  most  com- 
mon form  is 

275.  THE  LINEAR,  long  and  narrow,  with 
parallel  margins,  like  the  leaves  of   the 
grasses— a  form  which  may  also  occur  in 
the  pinnate-veined  leaf,  when  the  veinlets 
are  all  equally  shortened.     The  ensiform, 
or  sword-shaped,  is  also  linear,  but  has  its 
edges  vertical,  that  is,  directed  upward  and 
downward. 

276.  IF  THE  VEINS  CURVE,  we  may  have 
the  lanceolate,  elliptical,  or  even  orbicular 
forms  ;  and  if  the  lower  curve  downward, 
the  cordate,  sagittate,  etc.,  all  of  which  are 
shown  in  the  cuts. 

The  palmate  or  radiate  form  is  finely  illustrated 
in  the  palmetto  and  other  palms,  whose  large, 
fan-shaped  leaves  are  appropriately  termed  flabel- 
liform  (fan-shaped).  / 

277.  THE  LEAVES  OF  THE  PINE  AND  THE  FIR  TRIBE  (Conifer®)  gen- 
erally are  parallel-veined  also,   and  remarkable  for  their   contracted 


151,  Ensiform  leaves  of  iris. 
152,  Acerose  leaves  of  pinus.  153, 
Subulate  leaves  of  Juniperus  com- 
inunis. 


FORM    OR   FIGURE. 


59 


forms,  in  which  there  is  no  distinction  of  petiole  or  blade.  Such  are  the 
acerose  (needle-shaped)  leaves  of  the  pine,  the  subulate  (awl-shaped) 
and  scale-form  leaves  of  the  cedars,  etc. 

MARGIN. 

The  following  terms  apply  to  the  various  modifications  of  the  margin,  as  such, 
not  affecting  the  general  outline  of  the  leaf. 

&  c  d  e  f  g  h        k       I 


154.  Diagram  of  leaf-margins,    a,  entire ;  6,  undulate ;  c,  repand  ;    d,  spinous ;  e,  crenute ; 
/,  dentate ;  gr,  serrate ;  h,  laciniate  ;  £,  incised ;  I,  erose. 

278.  ENTIRE,  even  edged,  having  the  tissue  completely  filled  out. 
Sometimes  a  vein  runs  along  the  margin,  which  might  otherwise  be 
easily  torn,  as  in  the  Caladium.     But  when  the  marginal  tissue  is  de- 
ficient, the  leaf  becomes 

279.  DENTATE,  having  sharp  teeth  pointing  outward  from  the  centre; 
serrate,  with  sharp  teeth  pointing  forwards,  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw ; 
crenate,  with  rounded  or  blunt  teeth.     The  terms  denticulate,  serrulate^ 
crenulate,  denote  finer  indentations  of  the  several  kinds ;  doubly  den- 
tate, &c.,  denote  that  the  teeth  are  themselves  toothed. 

280.  THE  UNDULATE,  or  wavy  edge  is  somewhat  different  from  the 
repand,  which  bends  like  the  margin  of  an  umbrella.     If  the  veins  pro- 
ject, and  are  tipped  with  spines,  the  leaf  becomes  spinous. 

281.  IRREGULARLY  DIVIDED  MARGINS  are  said  to  be  erose  or  jagged, 
laciniate  or  torn,  incised  or  cut. 

282.  CRISPED.     Often,  instead  of  a  deficiency  there  is  a  superabun- 
dance of  marginal  tissue,  denoted  by  the  term  crispate  or  crisped. 


n  o    '•>•  p    »  q 

155,  Apex  of  leaves,    a,  obcordate ;  &,  emarginate  ;  c,  retuse ;  <f,  truncate ;  «,  obtuse ;/,  acute; 
,  mucronate  ;   ft,  cuspidate  ;  £\  acuminate. 

156.  Bases  of  leaves.    7.  h.i>tate;   in,  n,  saggittate ;   <?,  auriculate ;  p,  cordate;  q,  renifonn. 


60 


OP   THE    COMPOUND    LEAF. 


283.  POINTED  LEAVES.     In  regard  to  the  termination  of  a  leaf  at  its 
apex,  it  may  be  acuminate,  ending  with  a  long,  tapering  point ;  cuspi- 
date, abruptly  contracted  to  a  sharp,  slender  point ;  mucronate,  tipped 
with  a  spiny  point ;  acute,  simply  ending  with  an  angle  ;  obtuse,  rounded 
at  the  point. 

284.  POINTLESS   LEAVES.     Or   the  leaf  may  end  without  a  point, 
being  truncate,  as  if  cut  square  off ;  retuse,  with  a  rounded  end  slightly 
depressed  where  the  point  should  be  ;  emarginate,  having  a  small  notch 
at  the  end ;  obcordate,  inversely  heart-shaped,  having  a  deep  indentation 
at  the  end. 


OF    THE    COMPOUND    LEAF. 

285.  THEORY.     If  we  conceive  of  a  simple  leaf  becoming  a  com- 
pound one,  on  the  principle  of  "  deficiency  of  tissue  between  the  veins," 
it  will  be  evident  that  the  same  forms  of  venation  are  represented  by 
the  branching  petioles  of  the  latter  as  by  the  veins  of  the  former. 
The  number  and  arrangement  of  the  parts  will  therefore  in  like  man- 
ner correspond  with  the  mode  of  venation. 

286.  LEAFLETS.     The  divisions  of  a  compound  leaf  are  called  leaflets, 
and  the  same  distinction  of  outline,  margin,  &c.,  occur  in  them  as  in 
simple  leaves.     The  petiolules  of  the  leaflets  may  or  may  not  be  articu- 
lated to  the  main  petiole,  or  rachis,  as  it  is  called. 


157         161         159        160  158 

Compound  leaves.    157,  Trifolium  repens.    158,  Desmodium  rotundifolium.    160,  Glotidium. 
161,  Cassia.    159,  Agrimonia. 

287.  PINNATELY  COMPOUND.  From  the  pinnate-veined  arrangement 
we  may  have  tine  pinnate  leaf,  where  the  petiole  (midvein)  bears  a  row 
of  leaflets  on  each  side,  either  sessile  or  petiolulate,  generally  equal  in 


OF    THE    COMPOUND    LEAF. 


61 


number  and  opposite.  It  is  unequally  pinnate  when  the  rachis  bears 
an  odd  terminal  leaflet,  and  equally  pinnate  when  there  is  no  terminal 
leaflet,  and  interruptedly  pinnate  when  the  leaflets  are  alternately  large 
and  small  (159,  etc). 

288.  THE  NUMBER  OF  LEAFLETS  IN  THE  PINNATE  LEAF  varies  from 
thirty  pairs  and  upwards  (as  in  some  acacias),  down  to  three,  when  the 
leaf  is  said  to  be  ternate  or  trifoliate ;  or  two,  becoming  binate,  or 
finally  even  to  one  leaflet  in  the  lemon.  Such  a  leaf  is  theoretically 
compound,  on  account  of  the  leaflet  (blade)  being  articulated  to  the 
petiole. 


165 
Compound  leaves.    162,  Clematis.    163,  Erigenia  bulbosa.    164,  Acacia.    165,  Honey-locust. 

289.  A  BIPINNATE  LEAF  (twice  pinnate)  is  formed  when  the  rachis 
bears  pinnce  or  secondary  pinnate  leaves,  instead  of  leaflets,  and  tripin- 
nate  (thrice  pinnate),  when  pinnae  take  the  places  of  the  leaflets  of  a 
bipinnate  leaf.     When  the  division  is  still  more  complicated  the  leaf  is 
decompound. 

290.  TRANSITION  LEAVES.     Different  degrees  of  division  often  exist  in  different 
parts  of  the  same  leaf,  illustrating  the  gradual  transition  of  leaves  from  simple  to 


167,  Lemon,    163,  Jeffersonia.    169,  Potentilla  anserina.    166,  P.  tridentata. 


62  OF   TEXTURE    AND    SURFACE. 

* 

compound  in  all  stages.    The  leaves  of  the  honey-locust  and  coffee  tree  (Gymno- 
cladus)  often  afford  curious  and  instructive  examples. 

291.  'A  BITERNATE  LEAF  is  formed  when  the  leaflets  of  a  ternate  leaf 
give  place  themselves  to  ternate  leaves,  and  triternate  when  the  leaflets 
of  a  alternate  leaf  again  give  place  to  ternate  leaves. 

292.  PALMATELY   COMPOUND.     A  DISTINCTION.     The  palmate  vena- 
tion has  also  its  peculiar  forms  of  compound  leaves,  as  ternate,  quinatc, 
septinate,  etc.,  according  to  the  number  of  leaflets  which  arise  together 
from  the  summit  of  the  petiole.     Ternate  leaves  of  this  venation  are  to 
be  carefully  distinguished   from  those  of  the  pinnate  plan.     The  pal- 
mately  ternate  leaf  consists  of  three  leaflets,  which  are  either  all  sessile 
or  stalked  alike ;  the  pinnately  ternate  has  the  terminal  leaflet  raised 
above  the  other  two  on  the  prolonged  rachis  (157,  158). 

172 


Insertion  of  leaves.    170,  Aster  oblongifolius  ?  (amplexicanl).    171,  Uvularia  perfoliata. 
172,  Lonicera  sempervirens,  (connate). 

With  regard  to  the  insertion  the  leaf  is  said  to  be 

293.  AMPLEXICAUL,  when  its  base  lobes  adhere  to  and  clasp  the  stem. 
Should  these  lobes  extend  quite  around  the  stem  and  become  blended 
together,  on  the  other  side  a  perfoliate  leaf  will  be  formed  {per,  through, 
folium,  leaf),  the  stem  seeming  to  pass  through  the  leaves. 

294.  CONNATE   denotes  that  the  bases  of  two  opposite  leaves  are 
united  so  as  to  form  one  piece  of  the  two. 

OF   TEXTURE   AND   SURFACE. 

IN  descriptive  botany  it  is  also  needful  to  regard  the  variations  of  leaves  in  the 
above  respects.  The  terms  which  we  briefly  notice  below  are  equally  applicable  to 
any  other  organs. 


TRANSFORMATIONS    OF   THE    LEAF.  63 

295.  IN  TEXTURE  leaves  may  be  membranous,  or  coriaceous  (leathery), 
or  succulent  (fleshy),  or  searious  (dry),  rugous  (wrinkled),  &c.,  which 
terms  need  only  to  be  mentioned. 

296.  IN  THE  QUALITY  OF  SURFACE,  the  leaf  may  be  glabrous  (smooth), 
destitute   of  all   hairs,  bristles,  &c.,  or  scabrous  (rough),  with  minute, 
hard  points,  hardly  visible. 

297.  A  DENSE  COAT  OF  HAIRS  will~  render  the  leaf  pubescent  when 
the  hairs  are  soft  and  short ;  villous  when  they  are  rather  long  and 
weak  ;  sericeous,  or  silky,  when  close  and  satin-like  ;  such  a  coat  may 
also  be  lanuginous,  woolly  ;  tomentous,  matted  like  felt ;  or  floccose,  in 
soft,  fleecy  tufts. 

298.  THINLY  SCATTERED  HAIRS  render  the  surface  hirsute  when  they 
are  long ;  pilous  when  short  and  soft ;  hispid  when  short  and  stiff.   The 
surface  will  be 

299.  SETOUS,  when  beset  with  bristly  hairs  called  setae  ;  and  spinous 
when  beset  with  spines,  as  in  the  thistle  and  horse-nettle.     Leaves  may 
also  be  armed  with  stinging  hairs  which   are  sharp  and  tubular,  con- 
taining a  poisonous  fluid,  as  in  nettles  and  Jatropha  stimulans. 

300.  A  PRUINOUS  surface  is  covered  with  a  bluish-white  waxy  pow- 
der, called  bloom,  as  in  the  cabbage,  and  a  punctate  leaf  is  dotted  with 
colored  points  or  pellucid  glands. 

301.  DOUBLE  TERMS.      The  modifications  of  leaves  are  almost  endless.     Many 
other  terms  are  denned  in  the  glossary,  yet  it  will  be  found  often  necessary  in  the 
exact  description  of  a  plant  to  combine  two  or  more  of  the  terms  defined  in  order 
to  express  some  intermediate  figure  or  quality ;  thus  ovate-lanceolate,  signifying  a 
form  between  ovate  and  lanceolate,  etc. 

302.  SUB.     The  Latin  preposition  sub  (under)  prefixed  to  a  descriptive  term  de- 
notes the  quality  which  the  term  expresses,  in  a  lower  degree,  as  subsessik,  nearly 
sessile,  subserrate,  somewhat  serrate. 


CHAPTEK    VIII. 

TRANSFORMATIONS     OF     THE     LEAF. 

Hitherto  we  have  considered  the  leaf  as  foliage  merely — constituted  the  fit  organ 
of  aeration  by  its  large  expansion  of  surface.  This  is  indeed  the  chief,  but  not  the 
only  aspect  in  which  it  is  to  be  viewed. 

303.  THE  LEAF  is  A  TYPICAL  FORM,  that  is,  the  type  or  idea  from  which 
the  Divine  Architect  derived  the  form  of  every  other  appendage  of  the 
plant.  To  trace  out  this  idea  in  all  the  disguises  under  which  it  lurks 
is  one  of  the  first  aims  of  the  botanist.  Several  of  these  forms  of  dis- 
guise have  already  been  noticed,  e.  g. 


64 


TRANSFORMATIONS    OP   THE    LEAP. 


304.  THE  SCALES  which  clothe  the  various  forms  of  scale-stems  are 
leaves,  or  more  usually  petioles,  reduced  and  distorted,  perhaps  by  the 
straitened  circumstances  of  their  underground  growth.     The  scales  of 
conns  and  rhizomas  are  mostly  mere  membranes,  while  those  of  the  bulb 
are  fleshy,  serving  as  depositories  of  food  for  the  future  use  of  the  plant. 
That  these  scales  are  leaves  is  evident,  1st,  from  their  position  at  the 
nodes  of  the  stem,   2d,  from  their  occasional  development   into  true 
leaves. 

305.  BUD  SCALES.     The  brown  scales  which  cover  winter  buds  are  of 
the  same  nature  and  origin. 

306.  THE  COTYLEDONS  of  seeds  or  seed-lobes  are  readily  recognized 
as  leaves,  especially  when  they  arise  above  ground  in  germination,  and 
form  the  first  pair  upon  the  young  plant,  as  in  the  beech-nut  and  squash 
seed.     Their  deformity  is  due  to  the  starchy  deposits  with  which  they 
are  crammed  for  the  nourishment  of  the  embryo  when   germinating, 
and  also  to  the  way  in  which  they  are  packed  in  the  seed. 

307.  PHYLLODIA  are  certain  leaf-forms,  consisting  of  petioles  exces- 
sively compressed,  or  expanded  vertically  into  margins,  while  the  true 
lamina  is  partly  or  entirely  suppressed.     Fine  examples  are  seen  in  our 
greenhouse  acacias  from  Australia.     Their  vertical  or  edgewise  position 
readily  distinguishes  them  from  true  leaves. 


173  1T4          175  176  177 

Aacidia.    173,  Nepenthes.      174,  Sarracenia  psittacina.    175,  S.  purpnrea.    176,  S.  Gronovii,  /?. 
Drummondii.    177,  Acacia  heteropbylla,  its  phyllodia. 

308.  ASCIDIA  or  pitchers,  are  surprising  forms  of  leaves,  expressly  contrived,  as 
if  by  art,  for  holding  water.  The  pitchers  of  Sarracenia,  whose  several  species  are 
common  in  bogs  North  and  South,  are  evidently  formed  by  the  blending  of  the  in 
volute  margins  of  the  broadly  winged  petioles,  so  as  to  form  a  complete  vase.  The 
broad  expansion  -which  appears  at  the  top  may  be  regarded  as  the  lamina.  Theso 
pitchers  contain  water,  in  which  insects  are  drowned,  being  prevented  from  escap- 
ing by  the  deflexed  hairs  at  the  mouth. 


TRANSFORMATIONS    OF    THE    LEAF.  65 

309.  NEPENTHES.     The  greenhouse  pitcher-plant  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies. 
Its  proper  leaves  are  sessile  and  lanceolate.     The  midvein  extends  beyond  the  apex 
like  a  tendril,  to  the  length  of  six  or  eight  inches.     The  extremity  of  this  tendril  is 
inflated  into  a  hollow  vessel,  similar  to  a  pitcher,  and  usually  contains  about  half  a 
pint  of  pure  water.     It  is  furnished  with  a  leafy  lid  connected  to  it  by  a  ligament 
Which  expands  or  contracts  according  to  the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  so  that  the 
cap  is  open  in  damp  weather  and  closed  in  dry. 

310.  DISCHIDIA.     Another  wonderful  provision  of  this  kind  is  observed  in  a  plant 
growing  in  the  forests  of  India,  called  Dischidia.     It  is  a  twining  plant,  ascending 
the  tall  trees  to  the  distance  of  a  hundred  feet  from  its  roots,  and  destitute  of  leaves 
except  near  its  top.     The  pitchers  seem  formed  of  a  leaf  with  its  edges  rolled  in- 
ward and  adherent,  and  its  upper  end  or  mouth  is  open  to  receive  whatever  moist- 
ure may  descend  into  it.    But  the  greatest  marvel  in  its  structure  is  that  several 
bundles  of  absorbent  fibres,  resembling  roots,  are  sent  out  from  the  nearest  parts  of 
the  stem,  enter  the  pitchers,  and  spread  themselves  through  the  cavity. 

311.  AIR  BLADDERS.     Many  weak-stemmed  water  plants  are  furnish"ed 
with  little  sacks  filled  with  air  to  buoy  them  up  near  to  the  surface. 
Such  are  the  bladders  of  the  common  bladderwort,  formed  from  the 
leaf  lobes.     In  the  horned-bladderwort  the  floats  are  made  of  the  six 
upper  inflated  petioles  lying  upon  the  surface  of  the  water  like  awheel- 
shaped  raft,  and  sustaining  the  flower  upon  its  own  elevated  stalk. 

312.  THE  LEAF  OP  YENUS'  FLY-TRAP  (Dionea),  native  of  Carolina,  is  also  of  curious 
design.     At  the  end  of  the  leaf  are  two 

lobes  bordered  with  spines.  In  the 
cavity  between  the  lobes  are  several 
sharp  points  projecting  upwards,  and  a 
gland  which  secretes  a  liquor  attractive 
to  insects.  But  when  an  unlucky  fly, 
in  search  of  food,  alights  upon  it,  the 
irritable  lobes  instantly  close  and  im- 
pale him  in  their  fatal  embrace. 

313.  THE  TENDRIL  is  a  thread- 
like coiling  appendage  furnished 
to  certain  weak-stemmed  plants  as 

their  means  of    support  in  place.  ITS,  Leaves  of  Venns' fly-trap  (Dionea). 

Its  first  growth  is  straight,  and  it  remains  so  until  it  reaches  some  ob- 
ject, when  it  immediately  coils  itself  about  it,  and  thus  aquires  a  firm, 
though  elastic  hold.  This  beautiful  appendage  is  finely  exemplified  in 
the  Cncurbitacea3  and  grape,  above  cited ;  also  in  many  species  of  the 
pea  tribe  (Leguminosa?),  when  it  is  appended  to  the  leaves.  It  is  not 
a  new  organ,  but  some  old  one  transformed  and  adapted  to  a  new  pur- 
pose. In  Gloriosa  superba  the  midvein  of  the  leaf  is  prolonged  beyond 
the  blade  into  a  coiling  tendril.  In  the  pea,  vetch,  etc.,  the  tendrils 
.represent  the  attenuated  leaf  blades  themselves.  Again,  the  entire  leaf 
sometimes  becomes  a  tendril  in  Lathyrus,  while  the  stipules  act  as 
leaves. 

5 


66  TRANSFORMATIONS    OF    THE    LEAF. 

314.  THE  PETIOLE  OF  THE  LEAF  OF  CLEMATIS,  otherwise  unchanged, 
coils  like  a  tendril  for  the  support  of  the  vine.     In  the  greenbriar,  the 
stipules  are  changed  to  tendrils,  which  thus  arise  in  pairs  from  the  base 
of  the  petioles.     So  probably  in  the  gourd  tribe. 

315.  BUT  THE  TENDRILS  OF  THE  GRAPE-VINE  are  of  a  different  nature.     From 
their  position  opposite  the  leaves,  and  the  tubercles  occasionally  seen  upon  them, 
representing  flower  buds,  they  are  inferred  to  be  abortive,  or  transformed  flower- 
stalks.  X 


179  180  181  182 

Thorns.     179,  Crataegus  parvifolia  (thorns  axillary.)     ISO,  Honey -locust.    181,  Common  locust. 
182.  Berberis,  a,  a,  its  thorns. 

316.  SPINES.     Many  plants  are  armed,  as  if  for  self-defense,  with 
hard,  sharp-pointed,  woody  processes,  called  spines  or  thorns.     Those 
which  are  properly  called  spines  originate  from   leaves.     In  Berberis 
the  spines  are  evidently  transformed  leaves,  as  the  same  plant  exhibits 
leaves  in  every  stage  of  the  metamorphosis.     In  goat's-thorn  (Astraga- 
lus tragacanthus)  of  S.  Europe,  the  petioles  change  to  spines  after  the 
leaflets  fall  off.     In  the  locust  (Robinia),  there  is  a  pair  of -spines  at  the 
base  of  the  petiole,  in  place  of  stipules. 

317.  THORNS  originate  from  axillary  buds,  and  are  abortive  branches.     This  is 
evident  from  their  position  in  the  hawthorn  and  Osage  orange.     The  apple  and  pear 
tree  in  their  wild  state    produce  thorns,   but    by  cultivation  become   thornless, 
that  is,  the  axillary  buds,  through  better  tillage,  develop  branches  instead  of  thorns. 
The  terrible  branching  thorns  of  the  honey-locust  originate  just  above  the  axil,  from 
accessory  buds. 

318.  PRICKLES  differ  from  either  spines  or  thorns,  growing  from  the  epidermis 
upon  stems  or  leaves,  at  no  determinate  point,  and  consisting  of  hardened  cellular 
tissue,  as  in  the  rose,  bramble. 

319.  BRACTS.  By  a  more  gentle  transformation,  leaves  pass  into 
bracts,  which  are  those  smaller,  reduced  leaf-forms  situated  near  and 
among  the  flowers.  So  gradual  is  the  transition  from  leaves  to  bracts 


INFLORESCENCE. 


in  the  peony,  e.  g.,  that  no  absolute  limits  can  be  assigned.     Equally 
gradual  is  the  transition  from  bracts  to  sepals  of  the  flower — affording 
a  beautiful  illustration  of  the  doctrine  of  metamorphosis.     (374.) 
Bracts  will  be  further  considered  under  the  head  of  Inflorescence. 


184  183 

Bracts     183,  Pinckneya  pubens ;  Z>,  colored  bracts  (reduced  leaves).  184,  Zornia  tetrapbylla ; 
bracts  (enlarged  stipules). 


CHAPTER      IX. 


INFLORESCENCE. 

320.  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  PLANT-LIFE  ARE  TWO-FOLD,  namely,  vegetation  and  re- 
production :  the  former  looking  to  the  preservation  of  the  individual  plant  itself, 
the  latter  to  the  species.  Corresponding  with  this  view,  there  are  also  two  classes 
of  organs.  Having  considered  the  former  class,  that  is,  the  organs  of  vegetation,  we 
come  now  to  the  organs  of  reproduction,  including  the  flower,  the  fruit,  and  the 
seed. 

321.  INFLORESCENCE   is   a  term  denoting  the   arrangement  of  the 
flowers,  and  their  position  upon  the  plant. 

322.  ORIGIN  OF  FLOWER  BUDS.     All  the  buds  of  a  plant  are  supposed 
to  be  originally  of  one  and  the  same  nature,  looking  to  the  production 
of  vegetative  organs  "only.     But  at  a  certain  period,  a  portion  of  the 
buds  of  the  living  plant,  by  an  unerring  instinct  little  understood,  are 
converted  from  their  ordinary  intention  into  flower  buds. 

323.  PROOF  OF  THIS  THEORY.    That  this  is  the  origin  of  the  flower  bud  is  evident 
from  the  known  effects  of  cultivation,   causing  it  to  revert  partly  or  wholly  to  its 
former  intention,  as  in  the  green  rose,  when  the  petals,  &c.,  all  return  to  leaves:   in 


68 


INFLORESCENCE. 


the  proliferous  rose  when  the  axis  grows  on  through  the  flower  bearing  leaves  above 
it.  In  some  instances  the  skillful  gardener  learns  how  to  effect  this  interchange  of 
nature  in  the  buds  at  pleasure. 

324.  HENCE    IN  POSITION  AND  ARRANGEMENT  flower   buds  can   not 
Differ  from   leaf  buds,  and  both  are  settled  by  the  same  unerring  law 
which  determines  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves.      Accordingly  the 
flower  bud  is  always  found  either  terminal  or  axillary. 

325.  A  single  bud,  whether  terminal  or  axillary,  may  develop  either 
a  compound  inflorescence,  consisting  of  several  flowers  with  their  stalks 
and  bracts,  or  a  solitary  inflorescence,  consisting  of  a  single  flower. 

326.  THE  FLOWER-BUD  is  INCAPABLE  OF  EXTENSION.     "While  the  leaf- 
bud  may  unfold  leaf  after  leaf  and  node  after  node  to  an  indefinite  ex- 
tent, the  flower-bud  blooms,  dies,  and  arrests  for  ever  the  extension  of 
the  axil  which  bore  it. 

327.  THE    PEDUNCLE  is  the  flower-stalk.     It  bears  no  leaves,  or  at 
least  only  such  as  are  reduced  in  size  and  changed  in  form,  called  bracts. 
If  the  peduncle  is  wanting  the  flower  is  said  to  be  sessile. 

328.  THE  SIMPLE  PEDUNCLE  bears  a  single  flower ;  but  if  the  pedun- 
cle be  divided  into  branches,  it  bears  several  flowers,  and  the  final  divis- 
ions bearing  each  a  single  flower,  are  called  pedicels. 

329.  THE  SCAPE  is  a  flower-stalk  which  springs  from  a  subterranean 
stem,  in  such  plants  as  are  called  stemless  or  aculescent,  as  the  prim- 
rose, tulip,  blood-root.     Like  the  peduncle  it  is  leafless  or  with  bracts 
only,  and  may  be  either  simple  or  branched. 

330.  THE  RACHIS  (pa%ig,  spine)  is  the  axis  of  the  inflorescence,  or 
the  main  stem  of  the  compound  peduncle  along  which  the  pedicels  are 
arranged. 

331.  THE  TORUS  OR  RECEPTACLE  is  the  end  or  summit  of  the  flower- 
stalk. 

187  186  i     185 


183 


Anomalous  peduncles.  185,  Linden-tree.  186,  Butcher's-broom.  1ST,  Xylophylla.  188,  Coxcomb. 


INFLORESCENCE. 


69 


332.  THE  peduncle  is  subject  to  endless  modifications.     "We  find  it  sometimes 
excessively  lengthened,  again  very  short  or  wholly  wanting ;  very  slender  or  very 
thick.     In  coxcomb  its  branches  are  blended  into  a  thick,  fan-shaped  mass;  in 
butcher's-broom  it  expands  into  the  form  of  a  green  leaf,  and  in  the  linden-tree  into 
a  seal-like  bract.     In  Xylophylla  it  is  foliaceous,  bearing  flowers  along  its  margins. 

333.  BRACTS.     The  branches  of  the  inflorescence   arise   from    the 
axils  of  reduced  leaves,  called  bracts.     These  leaves,  still  smaller,  grow- 
ing upon  the  pedicels,  are  called  bracteoles. 

334.  The  bracts  are  usually  simple  in  outline  and  smaller  than  the 
leaf,  often    gradually  diminishing  to  mere  points,  as  in  Aster,  or  even 
totally  suppressed,  as  in  the  Cruciferse. 

335.  IN  COLOR  they  are  usually  green,  often  colored,  sometimes  bril- 
liantly, as   in  painted-cup.     Sometimes  they  are  scale-like,  and  again 
they  are  evanescent  membranes. 

336.  THE  SPATHE  is  a  large  bract  formed  in  some  of  the  monocotyle- 
dons, enveloping  the  inflorescence,  and  often  colored  as  in  the  Arum, 
Calla,  or  membranous  as  in  the  onion  and  daffodil.     Bracts  also  con- 
stitute an 


191  190  1S9 

Bracts  (Z>,  &,  &,).  189,  Cornus  Canaden^is,  with  an  involucre  of  4  colored  bracts.  190,  Hepatica 
triloba,  with  an  involucre  of  3  green  bracts.  191,  Calla  palustris,  with  a  colored  spathe  of  one 
bract. 

337.  INVOLUCRE  when   they   are  collected    into   a  whorl    or  spiral 
group.     In  the  Phlox,  Dodecatheon,  and   generally,  the  involucre  is 
green,  but  sometimes  colored  and  petaloid,  as  in  dogwood  and  Euphor- 
bia.    Situated  at  the  base  of  a  compound  urnbel,  it  is  called  a  general 
involucre,  at  the  base  of  a  partial  umbel  it  is  a  partial  involucre  or  in- 
volucel,  both  of  which  are  seen  in  the  umbelliferse. 

338.  Ix  THE  COMPOSITE,  where  the  flowers  are  crowded  upon  a  com- 
mon torus,  forming  what  is  called  a  compound  flower,  an  involucre  com- 
posed of  many  imbricated  scales  (bracts)   surrounds  them  as  a  calyx 
surrounds  a  simple  flower.     The  chaff  also  upon  the  torus  are  bracts 
to  which  each  floret  is  axillary. 


INFLORESCENCE. 


194  192 

192,  Ilelianthus  grosse-serratus.  Z,  involucre  ;  r,  rays,  or  ligulate  flowers  ;  198,  one  of  the 
disk  flowers  with  its  chaff-scale  (bract).  194,  Acorn  of  moss-cup  oak  (Q.  macrophylla).  195. 
Poa  pratensis  ;  f,  spikelet  entire,  g,  glumes,  separated ;  c,  a  flower  separated,  displaying  the  two 
palese,  3  stamens,  and  2  styles. 

339.  IN  THE  GRASSES  the  bracts  subsist  under  the  general  name  of 
chaff.     The  bracts  situated  at  the  base  of  a  spikelet  of  flowers,  are 
called  the  glumes,  corresponding  to  the  involucre.     Those  situated  at 
the  base  of  each  separate  flower  are  palece,  answering  to  the  calyx  or 
corolla.     The  pieces  of  which  each  calyx  is  composed  (generally  two) 
are  called  valves  or  pales. 

340.  OTHER  EXAMPLES  of  the  involucre  are  seen  in  the  cup  of  the 
acorn,  the  burr  of  the  chestnut,  beech,  etc. 

341.  THE  FORMS  OF  INFLORESCENCE  are  exceedingly  various,  tut  may 
all  be  referred  to  two  classes,  as  already  indicated ;  the  axillary,  in 
which  all  the  flowers  arise  from  axillary  buds,  the  terminal,  in  which  all 
the  flower-buds  are  terminal. 

342.  AXILLARY  INFLORESCENCE  is  called  indefinite,  because  the  axis, 
being  terminated  by  a  leaf-bud,  continues  to  grow  on  indefinitely,  de- 
veloping bracts  with  their  axillary  flowers  as  it  grows.     It  is  also  called 
centripetal,  because  in  the  order  of  time  the  blossoming  commences 
with  the  circumference,  and  proceeds  towards  the  centre  in  case  of  a 
level  topped  cluster,  as  the  hawthorn,  or  with  the  base,  and   proceeds 
towards  the  summit  in  case  of  the  lengthened  cluster,  as  the  mustard. 

The  student  will  readily  perceive  that  the  circumference  of  a  depressed 
(flattened)  inflorescence  corresponds  to  the  base  of  a  lengthened  one ; 
and  also  that  the  centre  of  the  former  answers  to  the  summit  of  the 
latter.  For  when  the  axis  or  rachis  is  lengthened,  it  is  the  centre  which 
bears  it  along  with  it  at  its  apex,  leaving  the  circumference  at  the  base. 

343.  TERMINAL  INFLORESCENCE,  on  the  other  hand,  is  definite,  im- 
plying that  the  growth  of  the  axis  as  well  as  of  each  branch  is  definitely 
arrested  and  cut  short  by  a  flower.     It  is  also  centrifugal,  because  the 


INFLORESCENCE. 


71 


blossoming  commences  with  the  central  flower  and  proceeds  in  order 
to  the  circumference,  as  in  the  sweet-william,  elder,  hydrangea. 

In  this  kind  of  inflorescence  all  the  flowers  are  considered  terminal  because  they 
do  in  fact  (except  the  first  which  terminates  the  axis)  terminate  lateral  branches 
successively  produced  on  a  definite  plan  at  the  node  next  below  the  primary  flower. 

344.  BOTH  KINDS  OF  INFLORESCENCE  ARE  OCCASIONALLY  COMBINED  in  the  same 
plant,  where  the  general  system  may  be  distinguished  from  the  partial  clusters 
which  compose  it.  Thus  in  the  Compositse,  while  the  florets  of  each  head  open 
centripetally,  the  general  inflorescence  is  centrifugal,  that  is,  the  terminal  head  is 
developed  before  the  lateral  ones.  But  in  the  Labiatae  the  partial  clusters  (verticil- 
asters)  open  centrifugally  while  the  general  inflorescence  is  indefinite,  proceeding 
from  the  base  upwards. 

345. -OF    CENTRIPETAL    OR    AXILLARY    INFLORESCENCE    THE    PRINCIPAL 

VARIETIES  ARE  the  spike,  spadix,  catkin,  raceme,  corymb,  umbel,  pani- 
cle, thyrse,  head. 

346.  THE  SPIKE  is  a  long  rachis  with  sessile  flowers  either  scattered, 
clustered,  or  crowded  upon  it,  as  plantain,  mullein,  vervain.     The  so- 
called  spikes  of  the  grasses,  as  wheat,  timothy,  are  in  fact  compound 
spikes,  bearing  little  spikes  or  spikelets  in  place  of  single  flowers. 

347.  THE  SPADIX  is  a  thick,  fleshy  rachis  with  flowers  closely  sessile 
or  imbedded  on  it,  and  usually  with  a  spathe,  as  in  the  Arum,  or  with- 
out it,  as  in  the  Typha. 


200,  Spiranthes  cernua ;  flowers  in  a  twisted  spike.    201,  Orontium  aquaticum  ;  flowers  on  a 
naked  spadix.    202,  Betula  lenta ;  flowers  in  aments. 

348.  THE  CATKIN  or  AMENTUM  is  a  slender,  pendant  rachis  with  scaly 
bracts  subtending  the  naked,  sessile  flowers,  and  usually  caducous,  as  in 
birch,  beech,  oak,  willow. 

349.  THE  RACEME  is  a  rachis  bearing  its  flowers  on  distinct,  simple 
pedicels.     It  may  be  erect,  as  in  hyacinth,  Pyrola,  or  pendulous,  as  in 
currant,  blackberry. 


INFLORESCENCE. 


350.  THE  CORYMB  differs  from  the  raceme  in  having  the  lower  pedi- 
cels lengthened  so  as  to  elevate  all  the  flowers  to  about  the  same  level, 
as  in  the  wild  thorn. 


207    205  204  206         203 

203,  Andromeda  racemosa  ;  flowers  in  a  secund  raceme.  204,  Verbascum  Blattaria;  raceme. 
205,  Lolium  perenne ;  a  compound  spike  or  a  spike  of  spikelets.  206,  Dipsacus  sylvestris  ;  head 
with  an  involucre  of  leaves.  20T,  Osmorhiza  longistylis ;  a  compound  umbel.  203,  Its  fruit. 

351.  AN  UMBEL  consists  of  several  pedicels  of  about  equal  length 
radiating  from  the  same  point,  the  top  of  the  common  peduncle,  as 
milk-weed,  ginseng,  onion.  When  the  pedicels  of  an  umbel  become 

210 


209,  Staphylea  trifolia ;  a  pendulous,  paniculate  cyme.    210,  Catalpa ;  a  panicle. 


INFLORESCENCE. 


73 


213 


214 


themselves  umbels,  as  in  caraway  and  most  of  the  Umbeliferse,  a  com- 
pound umbel  is  produced.  Such  secondary  umbels  are  called  umbellets 
and  the.  primary  pedicels,  rays. 

352.  THE  PANICLE  is  a  compound  inflorescence  formed  by  the  irregu- 
lar branching  of  the  pedicels  of  the  raceme,  as  in  oats,  spear-grass, 
Catalpa. 

353.  A  THYRSE  is  a  sort  of  compact,  oblong,  or  pyramidal  panicle,  as 
in  lilac,  grape. 

354.  A  HEAD  OR  CAPITULTJM  is  a  sort  of  reduced  umbel,  having  the 
flowers  all  sessile  upon  the  top  of  the  peduncle,  as  in  the  button  snake- 
roof,  button-bush,  clover. 

But  the  more  common  examples  of 
the  capitulum  are  seen  in  the  Compos- 
ite, where  the  summit  of  the  peduncle, 
that  is,  the  receptacle,  is  dilated,  bear- 
ing the  sessile  flowers  above,  and  scale- 
like  bracts  around,  as  an  involucre. 

355.  THE  CAPITULUM  OF  THE 
COMPOSITE  is  often  called  a  com- 
pound  flower    from    its    resem- 
blance, the  involucre  answering 
to  a  calyx,  the  rays  to  the  corolla. 
The    flowers    are   called  florets, 
those  of  the  outer  circle,  florets 
of  the    ray,   generally    differing 
in  form  from  those  of  the  cen- 
tral portions,  the  florets   of  the 
disk. 

356.  OF    TERMINAL     INFLORES- 
CENCE THE  FOLLOWING    VARIETIES 

are     described :     cyme,    fascicle 
(verticilaster),  glomeruli. 

213 


Vernonia  fasciculate;  flowers  in  a  discoid 
head  with  an  imbricated  involucre.  211,  A 
single  flower  remaining  on  the  receptacle.  212, 
A  fruit  crowned  with  the  pappus.  213,  Mulge- 
dium ;  a  head.  214,  A  single  flower  remaining 
on  the  receptacle.  215,  A  fruit  with  pappus. 


217 


• 

Diagrams;  216  of  a  cyme ;  flowers  numbered  in  the  order  of  their  development  217,  Cyme  fas- 
tigiate.    218,  Cyme  half  developed— a  scorpoid  raceme. 

357.  CYME  is  a  general  term  denoting  any  inflorescence  with  centri- 


INFLORESCENCE. 


fugal  evolutions,  but  is  properly  applied  to  that  level-topped  or  fastigiate 
form  which  resembles  the  corymb,  as  in  the  elder.  If  it  is  loosely 
spreading,  not  fastigiate,  it  is  called  a  cymose  panicle,  as  in  the  chick- 
weed,  spergula,  etc.  If  it  be  rounded,  as  in  the  snowball,  it  is  a  globous 
cyme. 


220,  Myosotis  palustris ;  scorpoid  racemes.    219,  Stellaria  media  ;  a  regular  cyme. 

358.  A  SCORPOID  CYME,  as  seen  in  the  sundew,  Sedum,  and  borrage 
family,  is  a  kind  of  coiled  raceme,  unrolling  as  it  blossoms.  It  is  un- 
derstood to  be  a  half-developed  cyme,  as  illustrated  in  the  cut. 

359.  THE  PECULIAR  EVOLUTION  OF  THE 
CYME  is  well  illustrated  in  the  chick-weed 
(Alsine  media).     The  first  opening   flower 
terminates  the  axis  and  stops  its  growth. 
Then  from  the  pair  of  axils  next  below  issue 
two  opposite  branches,  each  bearing  a  pair 
of  leaves  and  a  terminal  flower.     Next,  the 
same  process  is  repeated  with  each  of  these 
two  branches,  and  so  on  indefinitely.     Thus 
the  stem  becomes  repeatedlj  forked,   each 
fork  having  an  older  flower  in  its  angle. 

360.  EVOLUTION    OF   THE  SCORPOID  RA- 
CEME.    But  let  only  one  branch  be  developed 
at  the  node  next  below  the  flower,  and  that 
always  on  the  same   side,  and  we  have  a 
scorpoid  raceme  or  cyme.     Other  irregulari- 
ties occasioned  by  partial  development  may 
also  variously  disguise  the  cyme. 

^^^^  ^^— H*.  361"  FASCICLE.     This  is  a  modifi- 

cation of  the  cyme,  with  crowded  and 
nearly  sessile  flowers,  as  in  sweet-william  (Dianthus). 

362.  GLOMERULE,  an  axillary  tufted  cluster,  with  a  centrifugal  evolu- 
tion, frequent  in  the  Labiatse,  etc.  When  they  occur  in  the"  axils  of 


221,  Spigelia  Marilandica  ;  a  scorpoid 
raceme. 


FLOWERING. 


opposite  leaves  and  meet  around  the  stem,  each  pair  constitutes  a  ver- 
ticilaster  or  verticil,  as  in  catmint,  hoarhound. 

363.  How  THESE  MODES  ARE  MUTUALLY  RELATED.  All  the  forms  of  inflorescence 
above  described  may,  after  all,  be  shown  to  be  but  modifications  of  a  single  type, 
as  follows  : 

Let  us  commence  with  the  spike,  a  slender  rachis  with  sessile  flowers.  Conceive 
that  pedicels  be  developed  for  the  flowers,  =  a  raceme ;  let  the  pedicels  branch,  — 
223  227  226  225  224  22-3  222  221 


Diagrams  illustrating  the  forms  of  inflorescence ;  graduated  from  the  spike  to  the  compound 
umbel,  showing  how  related  to  each  other. 

a  panicle ;  or  let  them  all  be  lengthened  to  the  height  of  the  rachis,  ==-  a  corymb. 
Now  suppress  the  rachis  to  a  point,  making  all  the  pedicels  equal,  =-  an  umbel. 
Once  more,  suppress  all  the  pedicels,  =  a  head.  Now,  if  in  each  case  we  suppose 
the  evolutions  of  the  flowers  to  be  reversed,  we  have  a  cymose  inflorescence.  Fi- 
nally, by  a  metamorphosis  still  more  remarkable, 

The  entire  inflorescence  is  sometimes  transformed  into  attenuated 
tendrils,  as  in  the  grape. 

FLOWERING. 

364.  DEFINITION.  In  the  bud  the  floral  leaves  (sepals  and  petals) 
infold  the  floral  organs  (stamens  and  pistils)  and  conceal  them  from 
view.     Flowering  consists  of  the  opening  or  expansion  of  these  envel- 
ops, displaying  every  organ  now  perfected  in  growth  and  beauty,  and 
ready  for  the  exercise  of  its  function. 

365.  PERIOD  OF  FLOWERING.      Each   species  of  plant  has  its  own 
special  season  for  flowering,  uniform  in  the  same  climate,  but  varying 
in  different  climates  according  to  the  general  temperature.   Hence  each 
month  and  each  day  of  the  month  mark  the  date  of  flowering  for  some 
one  or  more  species,  and  these  facts,  when  duly  observed  and  recorded 
in  their  proper  order,  constitute  the  floral  calender  for  that  locality. 

366.  THE  FLORAL  CALENDAR  is  an  index  of  climate,  and  may  vary 
to  a  considerable  degree  in  different  years  for  the  same  locality  or  for 
different  localities  in  the  same  year.     Such  a  calendar  is  prepared  by 
the  botanical  student  when  he  carefully  journalizes  his  discoveries  from 
day  to  day  throughout  the  season. 


76  FLOWERING. 

367.  EXAMPLES.    At  Savannah  the  red  rnaple,  shad-bush,  blood-root,  flower  in 
February ;  in  the  District  of  Columbia  in  March ;  at  Concord,  N.  H.,  in  April.     In 
New  England  the  witch-hazel  flowers  in  February ;  Hepatica  in  April ;   dogwood  in 
May ;  elder  in  June ;  lilies  in  July ;  boneset  in  August ;  asters  and  Solidagos  in 
September  and  October ;  and  chrysanthemum  in  November. 

368.  THE  FLORAL  CLOCK.     Each  plant  has  also  its  definite  hours  in  the  day  for 
, opening  its  flowers  and  for  closing  them — for  waking  and  sleeping;   and  a  careful 

record  of  these  facts  (as  once  made  by  Linnaeus)  may  seem  to  indicate  the  hour  of 
the  day.     Thus, 

The  morning  glory  opens  at  (about)  2  A.  M.,  a'nd  closes  about  10  A.  M. 

Rutland  beauty  "  "3     "            "              "     11     " 

Vegetable  oyster  "  "      4     "            "              "     12     " 

Poppy  '  "  "      5     " 

Bitter-sweet  "  "      6     " 

Water-lily  "  "      7     " 

Scarlet  pimpernel  "  "      8     " 

Calendula  arvensis  "  "      9     " 

Arenaria  rubra  "  "  10     " 

Ornithogalum  umbellatum  :{  "  11     " 

Passiflora  ccerulea  "  12  M. 

Pyrethrum  ^'n:[  «       2  P.  1L 

Marvel  of  Peru  "  "      4     " 

Silene  noctiflora  "  "       5     " 

Evening  primrose  <:  "      6     " 

Lychnis  vespertina  "  "      7     " 

Cereus  grandiflora  "  "      8     " 

369.  THE  COLORS -. OF  FLOWERS  constitute  one  of  their  chief  attrac- 
tions, and  are  of  special  interest  to  the  florist.     By  various  modes   of 
culture  he  may  often  change  at  will  those  colors,  thus  producing  nu- 
merous varieties,  as  in  the  tulip  and  dahlia.     But  in  scientific  descrip- 
tions the  colors  are  seldom  employed  as  characteristics  on  account  of 
their  variableness. 

370.  CLASSIFICATION  OF  COLORS.     De  Candolle   divides   the  colors 
of  flowers  into  two  series ;  1,  those  having  yellow  for  their  t}^pe  and 
capable  of  varying  to  red  and  white,  but  never  to  blue  ;  2,  those  having 
blue  for  their  type,  and  capable  of  varying  to  red  and  white,  but  not  to 
yellow.     The  first  series  is  called  Xanthic,  the  second,  the   Cyanic. 
Both  series  commence  with  green  (which  is  composed  of  blue  and  yel- 
low) and  end  in  red,  thus  : 

GREEN. 


Blue-green. 

Blue. 

Blue-violet. 

Violet. 

Violet-red. 


BED. 


Yellow-green. 

Yellow. 

Yellow-orange. 

Orange. 

Orange-red. 


MORPHOLOGY    OF   THE    FLOWER.  77 

371.  EXAMPLES.  The  tulip  was  originally  yellow.  All  its  numerous  varieties 
are  of  the  xanthic  series.  So  also  the  rose  and  Dahlia.  Florists  have  never  yet  ob- 
tained a  blue  tulip,  rose,  or  dahlia.  The  geranium  varies  throughout  the  cyanic 
series,  and  a  yellow  geranium  is  unknown.  Different  species  of  the  same  genus 
may  belong  to  different  series,  so  also  different  parts  of  the  same  flower. 


CHAPTER    X. 

MORPHOLOGY   OF   THE   FLOWER. 

372.  THE  FLOWER  AS  THE  STANDARD  OF  BEAUTY.     So  it  has  ever  been  regarded. 
Through  this  attribute,  so  evidently  divine  in  its  origin,  it  breathes  on  the  heart  an 
influence  which  is  essentially  spiritual,  always  pleasing,  elevating,  and  pure.     The 
benevolent  Thought  which  first  conceived  of  this  crowning  glory  of  the  vegetable 
world  had  evidently  in  view  the  education  of  man's  moral  nature  as  well  as  the 
reproduction  and  permanence  of  vegetable  jiature. 

373.  THE  FLOWER  IN  THE  LIGHT  OF  SCIENCE.     The  pleasure  of  the  florist  in 
contemplating  the  flower  as  merely  an  object  of  taste  is  not  diminished  when  he 
comes  to  view  it  in  the  light  of  science.     Parts  which  he  before  regarded  as  embel- 
lishments only,  now  assume  new  value  as  indispensable  agents  in  fulfilling  a  great 
design ;  every  organ  takes  form  according  to  the  sphere  of  its  office,  and  the  beau- 
ful  flower  no  longer  appears  as  the  possible  accident  of  a  chance- world. 

374.  ITS  NATURE  AND  ORIGIN.     We  have  before  observed  that  the 
flower-bud  is,  in  nature  and  origin,  one  and  the  same  with  the  leaf-bud. 
Now  a  leaf-bud  is  regularly  unfolded  into  a  leafy  branch.     A  flower- 
bud  is  unfolded  into  a  flower.     Hence  the  flower,  in  its  nature  and 
origin,  is  one  and  the  same  with  a  leafy  branch. 

375.  THEORETICAL  VIEW.     "When,  therefore,  this  new  necessity  arises  in  the  life 
of  a  plant,  viz.,  the  perpetuation  of  its  species,  no  new  principle  or  organ  is  evoked, 
but  the  leaf,  that  same  protean  form  which  we  have  already  detected  in  shapes  so 
numerous  and  diverse,  THE  LEAP,  is  yet  once  more  in  nature's  hand  molded  into  a 
series  of  forms  of  superior  elegance,  touched  with  colors  more  brilliant,  and  adapted 
to  a  higher  sphere  as  the  organs  of  reproduction. 

376.  THE  EVIDENCE   ON  WHICH  THIS  THEORY  RESTS  may  be  referred  to  two 
sources ;  namely,  natural  and  artificial  development.     We  mention  a  few  instances 
of  each  kind,  earnestly  recommending  the  student  to  study  for  himself  the  many 
facts  which  will  fall  under  his  own  observation  bearing  upon  this  deeply  interesting 
theory. 

377.  CASE  OP  THE  POPPY.     The  ordinary  complete  flower,  e.  g.,  the  poppy,  con- 
sists of  four  kinds  or  sets  of  organs,  viz.,  the  sepals  (outside),  petals  next,  stamens 
and  pistils,  and  each  kind  is  quite  different  and  distinct  from  the  others.     The  meta- 
morphosis of  the  leaf,  first  into  the  sepal  then  the  petal,  etc.,  is  so  abrupt  that  it 
seems  to  lose  its  identity  at  once.     But  there  are  some 

378.  CASES  IN  THE  NATURAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  PLANTS  where  the  transition  of 
the  leaf  is  gradual,  changing  insensibly,  first  to  bracts  then  to  sepals,  thus  appa- 
rently making  the  metamorphosis  iu  question  visible  before  our  eyes.     Such  cases 


78  MORPHOLOGY    OF    THE    FLOWER. 

240    239    238   237       236       235     234       233         282  231 


229,  Papaver  (poppy) ;  «,  stamens ;  p,  stigmas.    230,  Sepal.    231,  Petal— all  very  different    232 
Petals  of  the  water-lily  (Nymphaea)  gradually  passing  into  (240)  stamens. 

are  exactly  in  point.  The  leaves  of  the  pseony,  large  and  much  divided  below, 
become  smaller  and  more  simple  above,  gradually  passing  into  bracts  and  thence 
into  sepals.  In  Calycanthus  the  sepal  passes  into  the  petal  by  gradations  so  gentle 
that  we  can  not  mark  the  limit  between  them.  In  the  lilies  these  two  organs  are 
almost  identical.  In  the  water-lily,  where  the  sepal,  petal,  and  stamen  are  all  thus 
graduated,  the  transition  from  petal  to  stamen  is  particularly  instructive.  These 
two  forms  meet  half  way  by  a  perfect  series  of  gradations,  when  a  narrowed  petal 
is  capped  slightly  with  the  semblance  of  an  anther.  And  finally,  cases  of  a  close 
resemblance  between  stamen  and  pistil,  so  unlike  in  the  poppy,  are  not  wanting,  as 
in  the  tulip-tree. 

379.  FLOWERS  ALWAYS  REGULAR  IN  THE  EARLY  BUD.     An  early  examination  of 
flower-buds  often  exhibits  the  several  kinds  of  organs  much  less  diverse  than  they 
subsequently  become.     See  the  early  bud  of  columbine.     Those  flowers  which  are 
243  242  241 


241,  Eanunculus  acris ;  a  single  flower.     242,  K.  acris,  /3.  plena,  a  double  llower.     243,  Epacris 
impressa ;  the  flowers  changing  to  leafy  branches  (Lindley). 


AESTIVATION.  79 

called  irregular,  as  the  pea,  catmint,  violet,  are  regular,  like  other  flowers,  in  the 
early  bud ;  that  is,  the  several  petals  are  at  first  seen  to  be  precisely  similar,  becom- 
ing dissimilar  and  distorted  in  their  after  growth ;  so  in  the  stamens  and  other  or- 
gans. 

380.  CASES  IN  ABTIFICIAL  DEVELOPMENT  or  TERATOLOGY  (rlpa,  a  monstrosity, 
/.6yoc),  where  organs  of  one  kind  are  converted  into  those  of  another  kind  by  cul- 
tivation, afford  undeniable  evidence  of  the  doctrine  in  question — the  homology  of 
all  the  floral  organs  with  the  leaf.     Such  cases  are  frequent  in  the  garden,  and  how- 
ever much  admired,  they  are  monstrous,  because  unnatural     In  all  double  flowers, 
as  rose,  poeony,  Camillia,  the  stamens  have  been  reconverted  into  petals,  either 
wholly  or  partially,  some  yet  remaining  in  every  conceivable  stage  of  the  transition. 
In  the  double  butter-cup  (242)  the  pistils  as  well  as  stamens  revert  to  petals,  and  in 
the  garden  cherry,  flowering  almond,  a  pair  of  green  leaves  occupy  the  place  of  the 
pistils.     By  still  further  changes  all  parts  of  the  flower  manifest  their  foliage  amni- 
ties,  and  the  entire  flower-bud,  after  having  given  clear  indications  of  its  floral  char- 
acter, is  at  last  developed  into  a  leafy  branch.     (Figr.  243.) 

381.  IN  CLARKIA,  CELASTRUS,  damask  rose,  and  other  garden  plants,  cases  have 
been  noted  wherein  the  petal  *asserts  its  foliar  nature  by  producing  a  secondary 
flower-bud  hi  its  axil !     Thus  in  a  thousand  instances  of  abnormal  growth,  we  find 
evidence  proving  the  leaf  to  be  the  type  whence  all  other  forms  of  appendages  are 
derived,  and  whither  all  tend  to  return. 

382.  FURTHER  EVIDENCE  of  this  view,  equally  conclusive,  is  found  in  the  essen- 
tial agreement  of  the  aestivation  of  the  flower-bud  with  the  phyllotaxy  of  the  branch. 

ESTIVATION. 

383.  DEFINITION — IMPORTANCE.     This  terra  (from  cBstivus,  of  sum- 
mer) refers  to  the  arrangement  of  the  floral  envelops  while  yet  in  the 
bud.     It  is  an  important  subject,  since  in  general  the  same  mode  of 
aestivation  regularly  characterizes  whole  tribes  or  orders.     It  is  to  the 
flower-bud  what  vernation  (yernus,  spring)  is  to  the  leaf-bud. 

384.  THE  VARIOUS  MODES  OP  ESTIVATION  ARE  BEST  OBSERVED  in  sections  of  the 
bud  made  by  cutting  it  through  horizontally  when  just  ready  to  open.     From  such 
sections  our  diagrams  are  copied. 

385.  SEPARATELY  CONSIDERED,  we  find  each  organ  here  folded  in 
ways  similar  to  those  of  the  leaf-bud ;  that  is,  the  sepal  or  the  petal 
may  be  convolute,  involute,  revolutc.,  etc,  terms  already  defined. 

386.  COLLECTIVELY  CONSIDERED,  the  asstivation  of  the  flower  occurs 
in  four  general  modes  with  their  variations  ;  the  valvate,  the  contorted, 
imbricate,  and  plicate. 

387.  IN  VALVATE  .-ESTIVATION"  the  pieces  meet  by  their  margins  with- 
out any  overlapping  ;  as  in  the  sepals  of  the  mallow,  petals  of  Hydran- 
gea, valves  of  a  capsule.     The  following  varieties  of  the  valvate  occur  : 

388.  INDUPLICATE,  where  each  piece  is  involute  ;  i.  e.,  has  its  two 
margins  bent  or  rolled  inwards,  as  in  Clematis ;  or  reduplicate,  when 
each  piece  is  revolute — having  its  margins  bent  or  rolled  outwards,  as 
in  the  sepals  of  Althea  rosea.     (Figs.  245,  246.) 


80 


AESTIVATION. 


251  250  249 

244-251,  Modes  of  aestivation.    250,  Petals  of  the  wall-flower. 

389.  CONTORTED  AESTIVATION,  where  each  piece  overlaps  its  neigh- 
bor, all  in  the  same  direction,  appearing  as  if  twisted  together,  as  in 
Phlox,  flax,  oleander.     (247,  252.) 

390.  IMBRICATED  AESTIVATION  (imbrex,  a  tile)  is  a  term  restricted  to 
those  modes  in  which  one  or  more  of  the  petals  or  sepals  is  -wholly 
outside,  overlapping  two  others  by  both  its  margins.     This  kind  of 
aestivation  naturally  results  from  the  spiral  arrangements  so  common  in 
phyllotaxy,  while  the  valvate  and  contorted  seem  identified  with  the 

opposite  or  whorled  arrange- 
ment. The  principal  varieties 
are 

391.  THE     QUINCUNTIAL, 
consisting  of  five  leaves,  two 
of  which  are  wholly  without, 
two  wholly  within,  and  one 
partly  both,  or  one  margin  out, 
the  other  in,  as  in  the  rose 
family  (248).    This  accompa- 
nies the  two-thirds  plan    in 
phyllotaxy,  and   corresponds 
precisely  with  it,  each  quin- 
cunx  being   in   fact   a  cycle 
with  its  internodes  suppress- 
ed.    (§  232.) 

392.  THE     TRIQUETROUS, 
consisting  of  three  leaves  in 

252,  Gossypium  herbaceum,  the  cotton  plant.    Petals      each  set,  one  of  which  is  Ollt- 
contorted.  .  .  . 

side,  one  inside,  and  the  third 

partly  both,  as  in  tulip,  Erythronium,  according  to  the  one-third  plan 
in  phyllotaxy. 


THE    FLORAL    ORGANS. 


81 


393.  CONVOLUTE,  when  each  leaf  wholly  involves  all  that  are  within 
it,  as  do  the  petals  of  Magnolia ;  and  vexillary,  when  one  piece  larger 
than  the  rest  is  folded  over  them,  as  in  the  pea  (251).     • 

394.  PLICATE  or  folded  aestivation  occurs  in  tubular  or  monopfetalous 
flowers,  and  has  many  varieties,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  is  the 
supervolute,  where  the  projecting  folds  all  turn  obliquely  in  the  same 
direction,  as  in  morning-glory,  thorn-apple  (Datura). 


256 


253 


~   « 


Diagrams  of  flowers  (as  seen  by  cross-sections).  253,  Jeffersonia  diphylla :  o,  ovary  ;  «,  sta- 
mens ;  <7,  inner  row  of  petals,  aestivation  triquetrous ;  &,  outer  row  of  petals,  aestivation  contorted ; 
c,  sepals,  aestivation  quincuntial.  254,  Lily.  255,  Strawberry.  256,  Mustard.  The  pupil  will 
designate  the  modes  of  aestivation. 

The  aestivation  of  the  sepals  often  differs  from  that  of  the  petals  in  the  same 
flower.  Thus,  in  the  pink  the  sepals  are  imbricated  and  the  petals  contorted. 

395.  THE  P.OSITIOX  ox  THE  PARTS  OP  THE  FLOWER,  with  respect  to  the  main 
axis  and  the  bract  whence  it  arises,  is  often  important  in  description.  That  part 
which  is  adjacent  to  the  axis  is  the  posterior  or  upper,  while  that  which  looks  to- 
ward the  bract  is  the  anterior  or  lower  part. 


THE   FLORAL   ORGANS. 

396.  TECHNICAL  DEFINITION   OF  THE  FLOWER.     The  flower  is  an  as- 
semblage of  leaves  more  delicately  and  variously  formed,  borne  at  the 
upper  nodes  of  the  axis  where  the  internodes  are  undeveloped.     This 
portion  of  the  axis  is  called 

397.  THE  RECEPTACLE  or  TORUS.     It  is  the  axis  of  the  flower  situ- 
ated at  the  summit  of  the  flower-stalk.     Its  form  above  is  commonly 
that  of  a  flattened  or  somewhat  conical  disk,  the  center  of  which  cor- 
responds with  the  apex  of  the  axis. 

398.  THE  FLOWER  MAY  CONSIST  of  the  following  members  :  1,  the 
floral  envelops  ;  2,  the  essential  floral  organs. 

399.  THE  FLORAL  ENVELOPS  consist  of  one  or  more  circles  or  whorls 
of  leaves  surrounding  the  essential  organs.     The  outer  of  these  whorls 
is  called  the  calyx   and  the  other,  if  there  be  any,  the  corolla.     The 
calyx  may,  therefore,  exist  without  the  corolla,  but  the  corolla  can  not 
exist  without 

400.  THE  CALYX.     This  is  a  Greek  word  signifying  a  cup.     It  is  ap- 
plied to  the  external  envelop  of  the  flower,  consisting  of  a  whorl  of 

6 


82 


251 


THE    FLORAL    ORGANS. 

258 


257,  Flower  of  the  strawberry.    258,  Flower  of  the  pink.    259,  Flower  of  the  lily  (Lilium  su- 
perbuin).    The  pupil  will  point  out  the  parts. 

leaves  with  their  edges  distinct  or  united,  usually  green,  but  sometimes 
highly  colored.     The  calyx  leaves  are  called  sepals. 

401.  COROLLA  is  a  Latin  word  signifying  a  little  crown,  applied  to 
the  interior  envelop  of  the  flower.     It  consists  of  one  or  more  circles 
of  leaves,  either  distinct  or  united  by  their  edges,  usually  of  some  other 
color  ttfan  green,  and  of  a  more  delicate  texture  than  the  calyx.     Its 
leaves  are  called  petals. 

402.  PERIANTH  (nsQl^  around,  avdoc,  flower)  is  a  word  in  common 
use  to  designate  the  floral  envelops,  as  a  whole,  without  distinction  of 
calyx  and  corolla.     It  is  used  in  description,  especially  when  these  two 
envelops  are  so  similar  as  not  to  be  readily  distinguished,  as  in  the  tulip, 
lily,  and  the  endogens  generally  ;  also  where  only  one  envelop  exists,  as 
in  Phytolacea,  elm,  etc.     (259,  per.) 

403.  THE  ESSENTIAL  FLORAL  ORGANS  stand  within  the  circles  of  the 
perianth,  and  are  so  called  because  they  are  the  immediate  instruments 
in  perfecting  the  seed  and  thus  accomplishing  the  final  purposes  of  the 
flower.     These  organs  are  of  two  kinds,  perfectly  distinct  in  position 
and  office  ;  viz.,  the  stamens  and  the  pistils. 

404.  THE  STAMENS  are  those  thread-like  organs  situated  just  within 
the  perianth  and  around  the  pistils.     Their  number  varies  from  one  to 
a  hundred  or  more ;  but  the  most  common  number  is  Jive.     Collec- 
tively they  are  called  the  andr cerium  (dvdpeg,*  stamens,  oliw^  a  house). 

405.  THE   PISTILS   (called  also  carpels)   occupy  the   center  of  the 
flower  at  the  absolute  terminus  of  the  flowering  axis.     They  are  some- 
times numerous,  often  apparently  but  one,  always  destined  to  bear  the 
seed.     Collectively  they  are  called  the  gynoecium  (yvv?),  pistil,  otnog). 

*  The  plural  of  avrjp,  a  man,  a  term  applied  to  the  stamen  by  Linnaeus  in  accordance  with  his 
favorite  theory  of  the  sexes  of  plants.  The  term  ywr;,  woman,  is,  on  the  same  ground,  applied 
to  the  pistil. 


THE   PLAN    OF   THE    FLOWER.  83 

406.  RECAPITULATION.     Thus  we  have  noticed  the  members  of  the 
flower  in  the  order  of  their  succession  from   the  outer  to  the  inner  cir- 
cle.    Now,  in  regard  to  the  receptacle  on  which  they  stand  in  concen- 
tric whorls,  we  find  (reversing  the  order)  the  gynoecium  in  the  midst, 
the  center  of  the  flower,  the  androecium  encircling  it,  the  corolla  next 
without,  and  the  calyx  embracing  the  whole. 

407.  APPENDAGES.     These  are  the  four  proper  members  or-  sets  of 
organs  composing  the  flower.     Occasionally  we  meet  with  a  fifth  be- 
tween the  corolla  and  stamens,  not  easily  referrible  to  either,  like  the 
scales  in  the  throat  of  the  Borrageworts,  or  the  crown  of  the  Narcissus 
and  jonquils.     Such  are  regarded  as  appendages,  not  necessary  to  the 
completeness  of  the  flower. 

THE   PLAN  OF   THE   FLOWER. 

408.  ESSENTIAL  UNITY  COMBINED  WITH  ENDLESS  DIVERSITY  is  every  where  a 
characteristic  of  nature.     Herein  consists  the  perpetual  charm  of  her  presence  and 
the  perpetual  reward  of  her  diligent  study.     There  is  no  better  example  of  this 
happy  combination  than  is  found  in  the  structure  of  the  flower.     Unity  or  uniform- 
ity, when  often  repeated,  becomes  monotony.     Diversity  without  unity  is  confusion. 
Hence,  in  our  study  of  the  thousand  forms  in  which  God  has  attired  the  flower  we 
shall  arrive  at  no  satisfactory  result  until  we  come  to  discern  that  unity  of  plan,  that 
simple  idea  of  the  flower  in  which  all  its  diversities  harmonize.     There  is  such  an 
idea.     It  originated  in  the  Infinite  Mind.     Let  us  search  for  it. 

409.  THE  FLORAL  ORGANS.    "We  have  already  seen  that  the  flower  may  consist 
of  four  sets  of  organs — calyx,  corolla,  andrcecium,  gyncecium ;  or  of  four  kinds  of  or- 
gans— sepals,  petals,  stamens,  pistils,   each  arranged  circularly  around  a  common 
center. 

410.  SYMMETRY  OF  THE  FLOWER.     Now  as  the  leaves  of  a  branch  are  definitely 
apportioned  into  equal  cycles,  we  naturally  look  for  a  corresponding  symmetry  in. 
the  flower.     Each  set  of  organs  should  consist  of  at  least  one  cycle.     And  as  the 
cycle  itself  may  vary  numerically,  being  2-leaved,  3-leaved,  5-leaved,  etc!,  in  differ- 
ent species,  so  in  the  flower  each  cycle  or  set  may  be  2-parted,  3-parted,  5-parted, 
etc.     That  is,  the  sepals,  petals,  stamens,  pistils,  may  each  be  two  in  number,  or 
three,  or  four,  or  five  in  number,  etc. 

411.  AGAIN,  IN  RELATIVE  POSITION  the  organs  of  each  set,  as  a  rule,  alternate 
with  the  organs  of  each  adjacent  set ;  the  petals  alternate  'with  the  sepals  and  sta- 
mens, the  stamens  with  the  petals  and  pistils.    This  alternation  accords  with  the  op- 
posite and  verticillate  arrangement  of  leaves,  where  (§  226)  the  leaves  of  any  given 
circle  do  not  stand  exactly  over  the  leaves  of  the  next  circle  below,  but  over  the 
intervals  between  them.     In  a  word, 

412.  THE  TYPICAL  FLOWER,  one  that  exemplifies  the  full  idea  of  the 
floral  structure,  consists  of  four  different  circles  of  organs,  each  circle 
having  the  same  number  of  separate,  alternating  parts.     Such  a  flower 
is  not  only 

Perfect,  having  both  the  essential  organs,  but  also 
Complete,  having  the  four  kinds  of  organs. 


84 


THE    PLAN    OF   THE    FLOWER. 


Regular,  the  organs  of  the  same  kind  similar,  and 
Symmetrical,  the  same  number  of  organs  in  each  whorl. 

413.  SELDOM  REALIZED.     Happily,  this  our  conception  of  the  typical  flower  is 
not  often  realized  in  nature,  although  the  tendency  toward  it  is  universal.     Devia- 
tions occur  \n  every  imaginable  mode  and  degree,  causing  that  endless  variety  in 
the  floral  world  which  we  never  cease  to  admire. 

414.  EXAMPLES.     In  our  cut  (Pink,  258)  illustrating  the  organization  of  the  flower 
the  tendency  in  this  direction  is  evident,  but  the  stamens  are  too  many  and  the  pis- 
tils seem  too  few.     Among  the  Maxworts  and  the  Houseleek  tribe,  however,  arc 
some  good  examples.     The  flower  of  the  flax  combines  very  nearly  all  the  condi- 
tions above  specified.     It  is  complete,  regular,  symmetrical     Its  organs  are  alter- 
nate and  all  separate,  and  (disregarding  the  slight  cohesion  of  the  pistils  at  their 
base)  this  flower  well  realizes  our  type.    But 


263  261  262 

260,  &is,  Flower  of  Crassula  lactea,  regular,  symmetrical,  organs  distinct.    261,  Diagram  showing 
its  plan.    262,  Flower  of  the  Scarlet  Flax.    263,  Diagram  of  its  plan. 

415.  THE  FLOWERS  OF  CRASSULA,  an  African  genus  sometimes  cultivated,  afford 
unexceptionable  examples,  the  sepals,  petals,  stamens,  and  pistils  each  being  five 
in  number,  regularly  alternating  and  perfectly  separate. 

416.  FLOWERS  OF  SEDUM.     Admitting  two  whorls  of  stamens  instead  of  one,  we 
have  a  good  example  of  our  type  in  stone-crop  (Sedum  ternatum),  a  little  fleshy 
herb  of  our  woods.     Its  flowers  are  both  4-parted  and  5-parted  in  the  same  plant. 
See  also  the  12-parted  flowers  of  the  common  houseleek. 

417.  How*  TO  STUDY  THE  FLOWER.     If,  with  thistype  as  our  adopted  standard  of 
the  floral  structure,  we  compare  any  of  the  myriads  of  different  forms  which  occur, 
we  shall  be  able  to  trace  out  the  features  of  the  general  plan  even  among  the 
widest  deviations.     The  more  important  of  them  are  included  in  the  following  sy- 
nopsis : — 

1.  Variations  in  the  radical  number  of  the  flower. 

2.  Deficiencies  rendering  the  flower 
1  a,  Incomplete, 

6,  Imperfect, 

c,  Unsymmetrical, 

d,  Organs  opposite. 


THE    PLAN    OF   THE    FLOWER.  85 

3.  Redundancies, 

a,  In  the  multiplication  of  organs, 
6,  In  appendicular  organs. 

4.  Union  of  parts. 

o,  By  cohesions, 
6,  By  adhesions. 

5.  Irregularities  of  development, 

a,  In  homogenous  parts, 
6,  In  the  receptacle. 

6.  Combined  deviations. 

"We  shall  consider  these  several  topics  in  their  order. 

418.  THE  RADICAL  NUMBER  OF  THE  FLOWER  is  that  which  enumerates  the  parts 
composing  each  whorl.     It  varies  from  one  to  twenty,  and  is  expressed  thus : 
V,  \/»  V)  ,V>  etc.,  which  mathematical  expressions  are  to  be  read  by  the  words, 
disnerous  (&?,  two,  /^pof,  part),  or  2 -parted ;  trimerous,  or  3-parted ;  4-merous,  or 
4-parted ;  pentamerous,  or  5-parted ;  6-merous,  or  6-parted,  etc. 

419.  EXOGENS  AND  ENDOGENS  DISTINGUISHED.     Pentamerous  (V)  flowers,  like 
the  rose,  flax,  when  each  whorl  is  (naturally)  5-parted,  are  more  generally  charac- 
teristic of  the  exogenous  plants,  V  flowers  of  the  endogens,  as  the  lily,  Trillium. 
The  flowery  of  Fuchsia  are  V,  of  Circaea  V,  and  of  Hippuris  1  V. 

420.  DEFICIENCIES.    Incomplete. flowers  often  occur.      They  lack  some  one  or 
more  entire  sets  of  organs.     "When  only  one  of  the  floral  envelops,  the  calyx,  ex- 
ists, the  flower  is  said  to  be  apetalous  or  monochamydeous  (^/lo^uf,  a  cloak),  as  in 
elm,  Phytolacca.     These  terms  are  also  loosely  applied  to  such  plants  as  rhubarb, 
Anemone,  liverwort,  where  the  pieces  of  the  perianth  are  all  similar,  although  in  two 
or  three  whorls.     "When  the  perianth  is  wholly  wanting,  the  flower  is  said  to  be 
achlajnydeous  or  naked,  as  in  lizard-tail.     (264.) 

267  266  265  264 


264,  Flower  of  Saururus  (lizard-tail) ;  achlymydeous.    265,  Flower  of  Fraxinus  (ash).    266, 
Flower  of  Salix  (willow),  staminate.    267,  pistillate. 

421.  IMPERFECT  FLOWERS  are  also  of  frequent  occurrence.  They  are  deficient  hi 
respect  to  the  essential  organs.  A  sterile  or  staminate  flower  (denoted  thus  $ )  has 
stamens  without  pistils.  A  fertile  or  pistillate  flower  (?)  has  pistils  without  sta- 
mens. Such  flowers  being  counterparts  of  each  other,  and  both  necessary  to  the 
perfection  of  the  seed,  must  exist  either  together  upon  the  same  plant  or  upon  sep- 
arate plants  of  the  same  species.  In  the  former  case  the  species  is  monoecious  ($  ) 
as  in  oak  ;  in  the  latter  case  dioecious  ( $  ?  )  as  in  willow.  The  term  diclinous,  de- 
noting  either  §  or  $  ?  without  distinction,  is  in  common  use. 


86 


THE    PLAN   OF   THE    FLOWER. 


2TO 


271 


268,  Pistillate  flower  of  Balm-of-Gilead.    269,  Staminate.    270,  Diploclinium  Evansiamim. 
a,  staminate  ;  &,  pistillate. 

422.  A  NEUTRAL  FLOWER  is  a  perianth  or  calyx  only,  having  neither  stamens  nor 
pistils.  Such  are  the  ray-flowers  of  many  of  the  Composites,  and  of  the  cymes  of 
Hydrangea,  high  cranberry,  etc.,  which  in  cultivation  may  all  become  neutral,  as  in 
the  snow-ball. 

423.  UNSYMMETRICAL    FLOW- 
ERS.   The  term  symmetry,  as  used 
in  botany,  refers  to  number  only. 
A  flower  becomes  unsymmetrical 
by  the  partial  development  of  any 
set  or  circle  in  respect  to  the  num- 
ber of  its  organs.     The  mustard 
family  affords  a  good  example. 

424.  FLOWERS  OF  THE  CRUCI- 
FERS.     The   flowers  of  mustard, 
cress,  etc.,  are  understood  to  be 
4-merous  (V).     The   sepals  are 
four,  petals  four,  but  the  stamens 
are  six  and  the  styles  but  two. 
The  stamens  are  arranged  in  two 
circles,  having  two  of  those  in  the 
outer  circle  suppressed  or  reduced 
to  mere  glands.     Two  of  the  car- 
pels are  also  suppressed.     (256.) 

425.  IN  THE  MINT  FAMILY  and 
the  figworts  one  or  three  of  the. 
stamens    is     generally    abortive. 
Here,  while  the  flowers  are  V, 
the  stamens  are  four  in  some  spe- 
cies and  only  two  in  others.    The 
missing  stamens,   however,  often 
appear  in  the    guise   of  slender 
processes — the  rudiments  of  sta- 
mens— proving  in  an  interesting 

271,  "  Kadiant"  panicle  of  Hydrangea  quercifolium  ;        manner  the  natural  tendency  to 

the  larger  flowers  neutral.  symmetry. 

426.  OTHER  EXAMPLES.  In  the  V  flowers  of  poppy,  the  sepals  are  but  two ;  hi 
V  spring-beauty  they  are  but  two ;  in  both  cases  too  few  for  symmetry.  In  lark- 


THE    PLAN    OF    THE    FLOWER.  «< 

spur  the  V  flowers  have  but  four  petals,  and  in  monk's-hood,  also  V,  the  petals  are 
apparently  but  two  strangely  deformed  bodies.  A  careful  inspection,  however, 
generally  reveals  the  other  three,  very  minute,  in  their  proper  places,  as  displayed 
in  the  cut.  (283.) 

427.  "  ORGANS  OPPOSITE"  is  a  condition  much  less  frequent  than  "  organs  alter- 
nate," but  is  highly  interesting,  as  being  sometimes  characteristic  of  whole  families. 
Thus  in  the  primrose,  thrift,  and  buckthorn  families,  the  stamens  always  stand  op- 
posite to  the  petals ! 

428.  How  HAPPENS  THIS?     Among  the  prim  worts  this  question  is  solved  in  the 
flowers  of  Lysimachia  and  Samolus,  where  we  find  a  circle  of  five  teeth  (abortive 
filaments)  between  the  petals  and  stamens,  alternating  with  both  sets,  thus  restoring 
the  lost  symmetry.     Hence  we  infer  that  in  such  cases  generally  a  circle  of  alter- 
nating organs  has  been  either  partially  or  wholly  suppressed.     In  the  buckthorn, 
however,  a  different  explanation  has  been  given. 


272 


878 


Diagrams.  272,  Flower  of  Samolus,  showing  the  rudimentary  stamens  alternating  with  the 
perfect.  273,  Flower  of  a  Labiate  plant,  showing  the  place  of  the  deficient  stamen.  274,  Flower 
of  Asarum ;  three  sepals,  twelve  stamens,  etc.  275,  Flower  of  Saxifrage ;  two  pistils,  ten  sta- 
mens, etc. 

429.  THE  MULTIPLICATION  OP  ORGANS  is  exceedingly  common,  and  usually  ac- 
cording to  a  definite  plan.     The  increase  takes  place,  as  a  rule,  by  circles,  and  con- 
sequently by  multiples.     That  is,  e.  g.,  the  stamens  of  a  V  flower,  if  increased,  will 
be  so  by  3s ;  of  a  V  flower  by  5s,  etc.,  sometimes  to  the  extent  of  twenty  such 
circles. 

430.  CROWFOOTS  AND  ROSEWORTS.     In  the  crowfoot  family  the  stamens  are  al- 
most always  multiplied.     The  carpels  are  also  generally  multiplied,  yet  often,  on  the 
contrary,  diminished,  as  in  the  pseony.     In  Rosaceae,  also,  the  stamens  are  generally 
multiplied,  while  the  carpels  exist  in  all  conditions  as  to  number.     Thus  in  straw- 
berry they  are  multiplied,  hi  the  apple  they  are  regularly  five,  in  agrimony  reduced 
to  two,  and  in  the  cherry  to  one. 

431.  OTHER  CASES.     In  Magnolia  the  V  flowers  have  three  sepals  in  one  circle, 
six  or  nine  petals  in  two  or  three  circles,  numerous  stamens  and  carpels  in  many 
circles  of  each.     In  the  V  flowers  or  blood-root  there  are  two  sepals,  eight  petals, 
twenty-four  stamens,  and  two  carpels. 

432.  INCREMENT  BY  CLUSTERS  (CHORISIS).     In  other  cases  the  organs  seem  to  be 
increased  in  number  by  clusters  rather  than  by  circles,  as  when  in  the  same   circle 
several  stamens  stand  in  the  place  of  one,  e.  g.,  in  squirrel-corn,  st.  johnswort,  lin- 
den.    Such  cases  afford  wide  scope  for  conjecture.     Perhaps  each  cluster  originates 
by  division,  as  the  compound  from  the  simple  leaf;  or  as  a  tuft  of  axillary  leaves  ; 
or  thirdly,  by  a  partial  union  of  organs. 

433.  APPEXDICULAR  ORGANS  (§  40*7)  consist  of  spurs,  scales,  crown, 
glands,  etc.,  and  often  afford  excellent  distinctive  marks.     The  old  term 


88 


THE    PLAN    OF    THE    FLOWER. 

'    276  277  278 


276,   Flower  of  Aurantium  Limeta  (Lime-tree) ;  sta- 
mens in  five  sets.    277,  One  of  the  sets.    278,  Flower  of 
Hypericum  JSgypticum ;  stamens  in  three  sets.     279, 
Flower  of  Tecoma  radicans ;  petals  cohering  into  a  tube,  free  only  at  top.    Sepals  also  coherent. 

nectary  was  indiscriminately  applied  to  all  such  organs,  because  some 
of  them  produced  honey. 

434.  SPURS  are  singular  processes  of  the  flower,  tubular  and  pro- 
jecting from  behind  it.     In  columbine  each  petal  is  thus  spurred ;  in 
violet,  one  petal  only.     In  larkspur,  a  petal  and  a  sepal,  the  spur  of  the 
latter  inclosing  that  of  the  former.     The  curved  spur  of  the  jewel-weed 
belongs  to  a  sepal.     (280,  281.) 

435.  SCALES  are  attached  to  the  inner  side  of  the  corolla,  usually 
upon  the  claw  of  the  petals,  as  in  butter-cups,  or  within  the  throat  of 
the  corolla  tube,  as  in  the  Borrageworts.     Similar  appendages,  when 
enlarged  and  conspicuous,  constitute  a  crown  in  catchfly,  corn-cockle 
The  flowers  of  Narcissus  are  distinguished  by  an  excessively  large  crown 
or  corona,  with  its  parts  all  blended  into  a  tube  or  rim. 


280 


281 


Flower  of  Delphinium  Consolida  (common  larkspur),  displaying,  9,  s,  s,  s,  s,  the  five  sepals, 
rt,  the  upper  one  spurred  ;  c,  the  corolla  of  four  petals  here  united  into  one  and  produced  into  a 
spur.  281,  Flower  of  Impatiens  fulva,  (touch-me-not).  232,  Displaying,  S,  #,  «,  y,  the  four  se- 
pals, S,  the  anterior  one,  being  probably  double,  and  y,  saccate  and  sparred ;  p,  p,  the  two  petals, 
both  double. 


THE    PLAN    OF    THE    FLOWER. 


89 


436.  GLANDULAR  BODIES  are  often  found  upon  the  receptable  in  the 
places  of  missing  stamens  or  carpels,  or  as  abortive  organs  of  some  kind. 
Examples  are  seen  in  the  Crucifers  and  grape.     In  grass-Parnassus  they 
are  stalked  and  resemble  stamens. 

437.  UNION  OP  ORGANS.    This  condition  in  some  way  occurs  in  almost  every 
flower,  and  more  perhaps  than  any  other  cause  tends  to  disguise  its  plan  and  origin. 
The  separate  pieces  which  stood  each  as  the  representative  of  a  leaf,  now,  by  a  gra- 
dual fusion,  lose  themselves  in  the  common  mass.     Nevertheless,  marks  of  this  pro- 
cess are  always  discernible  either  in  parts  yet  remaining /ree,  or  in  the  seams  where 
the  edges  were  conjoined.     The  floral  organs  may  unite  by  cohesion  or  adhesion. 

438.  COHESION,  when  the  parts  of  the  same  whorl  are  joined  to- 
gether, as  the  sepals  of  the  pink,  the  petals  of  morning-glory,  the  sta- 
mens of  mallows,  the  carpels  of  poppy. 

439.  ADHESION,  when  the  parts  of  different  whorls  are  conjoined,  as 
the  stamens  with  the  corolla  in  phlox,  with  the  pistils  in  milkweed, 
ladies'  slipper  ;  or  calyx  with  ovary  in  apple  or  wintergreen  (Gaultheria)/ 

440.  THE  ADJECTIVE  FREE  is  used  in  a  sense  opposite  to  adhesion, 
implying  that  the  organ  is  inserted  on  (or  grows  out  of)  the  receptacle, 
and  otherwise  separated  from  any  other  kind  of  organ.     The  adjective 
distinct  is  opposed  to  cohesion,  implying  that  like  organs  are  separate 
from  each  other. 

This  subject  and  also  the  next  will  be  more  particularly  noticed  in  another  chap- 
ter. 


2S3,  Flower  of  Aconitura  Napellns  displayed  ;  s,  s,  s,  «,  s,  the  five  sepals,  the  upper  one  hooded  ; 
p,p,  p,  the  five  petals,  of  which  the  two  upper  are  nectaries  covered  by  the  hood,  and  the  three 
lower  very  minute.  2^4,  Flower  of  Catalpa,  2-lipped,  5-lobed.  285,  Corolla  laid  open,  showing 
the  two  perfect  stamens  and  the  three  rudimentary. 

441.  IRREGULAR  DEVELOPMENT.  Our  typical  flower,  it  will  be  re- 
membered, is  regular ;  and  observation  proves  that  all  flowers  are  ac- 
tually alike  regular  in  the  early  bud.  These  inequalities  or  "one- 
sided" forms,  therefore,  which  characterize  certain  flowers  are  occasioned, 
by  subsequent  irregular  growth  from  a  regular  type.  The  irregularity 
of  flowers  may  consist 


90 


THE    PLAN    OF    THE    FLOWER. 


1.  In  the  unequal  size  of  like  organs  (petals  of  mullein). 

2.  In  their  dissimilar  forms  or  positions  (petals  of  the  pea). 

3.  In  the  unequal  cohesion  of  like  parts  (petals  of  Lobelia). 

4.  In  unequal  suppressions  (stamens  of  the  Labiate  flowers,  where, 
indeed,  as  in  many  other  flowers,  all  these  phases  of  irregularity  are 
combined). 


2-9 


2S6,  Flower  (magnified)  of  Myosurus ;  a  vertical  section  showing  its  elongated  receptacle,  etc. 
2S7,  The  same,  natural  size.  288,  Flower  of  Isopyrum  biternatum ;  vertical  section,  showing 
the  convex  or  globular  receptacle,  etc.  289,  Flower  of  rose,  showing  its  excavated  torus. 

442.  THE   REGULAR  RECEPTACLE  has  no  internodes.     It  bears  the 
several  whorls  of  the  flower  in  close  contact  with  each  other,  and  is 
usually  short  and  depressed. 

443.  LENGTHENED   RECEPTACLE.     When  these  whorls  are  numerous, 
as  in  buttercups,  tulip-tree,  the  receptacle  is  necessarily  elongated.     So 
in  Myosurus,  blackberry,  strawberry.     In  the  two  latter  it  imbibes  the 

290  nutritious  juices   of   the   plant 

I  and  becomes  a  part  of  the  fruit. 

444.  EXCAVATED     RECEPTA- 
CLE.    On  the  contrary,  the  to- 
rus instead  of  lengthening  may 
be  hollowed  out  in  the   center. 
The  carpels  of  the  rose  are  sit- 
uated in  such  a  cavity,  while  the 
other  organs  are  borne  upou  its 
elevated   rim.     In   Nelumbium 
the  carpels  are  immersed  in  as 
many  separate  excavations  in  a 
large,  fleshy  receptacle. 

445.  BUT  THE  INTERNODES^OP   THE 


290,  Flower  of  Cleome  pungens,  showing  its  ovary, 
<?,  mounted  on  a  long  stype. 


TORUS    ARE    SOMETIMES    DEVELOPED, 

e.  g.,  in  noble  liverwort  a  short  inter- 
node  between  the  corolla  and  calyx 


THE    FLORAL   ENVELOPS.  91 

has  changed  the  latter  (technically)  to  an  involucre.  In  the  pink  a  similar  inter- 
node  renders  the  ovary  stipitate.  In  the  Caper  family  the  torus  is  developed  into 
long  internodes,  sometimes  raising  the  ovary  upon  a  long  stipe,  sometimes  the  sta- 
mens and  ovary. 

446.  THE  DISK  is  a  portion  of  the  receptacle  raised  into  a  rim  some- 
where in  the  midst  of  the  whorls.  It  is  found  between  the  ovary  and 
stamens  in  pseony  and  buckthorn.  It  bears  the  stamens  in  maple, 
mignionette,  and  crowns  the  ovary  in  the  Umbelliferae.  Finally 

291  292 


291,  Paeonia  Montan,  showing  its  very  large  disk  (d)  sheathing  the  ovaries  (p\  292,  Pistil  of 
the  lemon,  with  its  base  surrounded  by  the  disk,  d.  293,  Section  of  flower  of  Alchemilla,  show- 
ing its  single  simple  pistil,  large  disk,  etc. 

447.  COMBINED  DEVIATIONS  are  quite  frequent,  and  sometimes  ob- 
scure the  typical  character  of  the  flower  to  such  a  degree  as  to  require 
close  observation  in  tracing  it  out.     The  study  of  such  cases  is  full  of 
both  amusement  and  improvement. 

448.  FOB  EXAMPLE,  the  V  poppy  has  suppression  in  the  calyx,  multiplication  in 
the  stamens  and  carpels,  and  in  the  latter  cohesion  also.     The  V  sage  has  cohesion 
and  irregularity  in  the  calyx,  every  kind  of  irregularity  in  the  corolla,  suppression 
and  irregularity  in  the  stamens,  suppression  and  cohesion  in  the  pistils.     The  V 
Cypripedium  is  perfectly  symmetrical,  yet  has  irregular  cohesion  in  the  calyx,  great 
inequality  in  the  petals,  cohesion,  adhesion,  and  metamorphosis  in  the  stamens,  and 
cohesion  in  the  carpels. 

(In  this  way  let  the  pupil  analyze  the  deviations  in  the  flower  of  Geranium,  holly- 
hock, moth  mullein,  larkspur,  sweetbriar,  touch-me-not,  Petunia,  snapdragon,  violet, 
Polygala,  squirrel-corn,  Orchis,  henbit,  monk's-hood,  Calceolaria,  etc.) 


CHAPTER      XI. 

THE   FLORAL   ENVELOPS,    OR    PERIANTH. 

449.  IDEA  OF  THE  TYPICAL  FLOWER.  In  our  idea  of  the  typical 
flower,  the  perianth  consists  of  two  whorls  of  expanded  floral  leaves 
encircling  and  protecting  the  more  delicate  essential  organs  in  their 
midst.  The  outer  circle,  calyx,  is  ordinarily  green  and  far  less  conspic- 
uous than  the  inner  circle  of  highly  colored  leaves — the  corolla. 


92 


THE    FLORAL   ENVELOPS,    OB    PERIANTH. 


450.  EXCEPTIONS.     But  to  this,  as  to  all  other  general  rules,  there  are  many  ex- 
ceptions.    Strictly  speaking,  the  calyx  and  corolla  are  in  no  way  distinguishable 
except  by  position.     The  outer  circle  is  the  calyx,  whatever  be  its  form  or  color,  and 
the  inner,  if  there  be  more  than  one,  is  the  corolla, 

451.  RULES.     The  sepals  of  the  calyx  and  petals  of  the  corolla  are, 
according  to  rule,  equal  in  number  and  severally  disconnected  save  by 
the  torus  on  which  they  stand. 

452.  RESEMBLANCES.     The  sepals  more  nearly  resemble  true  leaves 
in  texture  and  color  ;  but  the  petals  in  form.     Both  have  veins  and  re- 
tain more  or  less  the  same  venation  which  characterizes  the  grand  di- 
vision to  which  the  plant  belongs  (§  258). 

453.  PARTS.     Both  blade  and  petiole  are 
distinguishable  in  the  floral  leaves,  especially 
in  the  petals.     The  blade  or  expanded  part 
is  here  called  limb  or  lamina  ;  the  petiolar 
part,  when  narrowed  into  a  stalk,  is  called 
the  claw. 

454.  NATURE  OF  THE  SEPALS.     The  sepals 
are   more  generally  sessile,  like   bud-scales, 
and  appear  to  represent  the  leaf-stalk  only, 
with  margins  dilated  like  a  sheathing  petiole. 
In  confirmation  of  this  view,  we  find  in  some 
flowers,  as  the  pseony  and  rose,  the  lamina 
also  developed,. but  smaller  than  the  petiolar 
part. 

455.  FORMS  OF  PETALS.     In  form  or  out- 
line there  is  a  general  resemblance  between 
the  limb   and   the  leaf.     It  is  ovate,  oval, 
lanceolate,    obcordate,    orbicular,    etc.     In 
margin  it  is  generally  entire.    Some  peculiar 
forms,  however,  should  be  noticed,   as  the 
bilobate  petal  of  the  chickweed,  the  pinna- 
tifid  petal  of  miterwort,  the  inflected  petal 
of  the  Umbeliferse,  the  fan-shaped  petal  of 
pink,  the  fringed  (fimbriate)  petal  of  cam- 
pion  (silene  stellata),   the  hooded  sepal  of 
Napellus,  the   saccate  petal  of  Calceolaria, 
Cypripedium. 

456.  NECTARY.     The  limb  is,  moreover, 
often  distorted  into  a  true  nectary,  spurred, 
as  already  shown  (§  434),  or  otherwise  de- 
formed, as  in  Napellus,  Coptis,  etc. 


Forms  of  petals.    294,  Butter- 
cup, showing  the  scale  at  base. 

295.  Mignonette,  fringed  at  top. 

296,  Silene  stellata,  fringed  and 
unguiculate.      297,   Flower    of 
Osmorhiza  longistylis,  petals  in- 
flected.   298,  Flower  of  Mitella 
diphyila,  petals  pectinate-pinna- 
tifld.'    299,  Petal  of  Cerastium 
nutans,  2-cleft, 


THE    FLORAL    ENVELOPS,  OB    PERIANTH. 


93 


457.  UNION.     We  have  seen  that  the  floral  organs  are  often  in  va- 
rious ways  united.     Considering  their  crowded  state  in  the  flower,  we 
rather  wonder  that  they  do  not  always  coalesce  in  their  growth. 

458.  The  calyx  with  united  sepals  was  called  by  the, early  botanists 
monosepalous  ;  the  corolla  with  united  petals  was  called  monopetalous 
(povog,  one — from  the  false  idea  that  such  an  organ  consisted  of  a  sin- 
gle piece  or  leaf!).     Opposed  to  these  terms  were  polypetalous  (noM^ 
many),  petals  distinct,  and  polysepalous,  sepals  distinct. 

459.  THE  MONOSEPALOUS  OALYX,  OR   MONOPETALOUS    COROLLA,  al- 
though thus  compounded  of  several  pieces,  is  usually  described  as  a 
simple  organ,  wheel-shaped,  cup-shaped,  tubular,  according  to  the  de- 
gree of  cohesion.     The  lower  part  of  it,  formed  by  the  united  claws, 
whether  long  or  short,  is  the  tube  ;  the  upper  part,  composed  of  the 
confluent  laminae,  is  the  border  or-  limb  ;  the  opening  of  the  tube  above 
is  the  throat. 

460.  THE  BORDER  is  either  lobed,  toothed,  crenate,  etc.,  by  the  dis-' 
tinct  ends  of  the  pieces  composing  it,  as  in  the  calyx  of  pink,  the  calyx 
and  corolla  of  Primula,  Phlox,  and  bellwort,  or  it  may  become  by  & 
complete  lateral  cohesion,  entire,  as  in  morning-glory.     Here  the  -com- 
pound nature  of  the  organ  is  shown  by  the  seams  alone. 


801 


300,  Flower  of  Saponaria  (bouncing  bet)  ;  petals  and  claws  quite  distinct.  301,  Phlox;  clawf 
united,  with  lamina  distinct.  302,  Spigelia  (pink-root),  petals  still  further  united.  303,  Quamo- 
tlit  coccinea,  petals  united  throughout. 

461.  A  TERMINAL  COHESION,  where  summit  as  well  as  sides  are 
joined  forming  a  cap  rather  than  cup,  rarely  occurs,  as  in  the  calyx  of 
the  garden  Escholtzia  and  the  corolla  of  the  grape. 

462.  THE  MODCS  OF  ADHESION  are  various  and  important,  furnishing 
some  of  the  most  valuable  distinctive  characters.     An  organ  is  said  to 
be  adherent  when  it  is  conjoined  with  some  dissimilar  organ,  as  stamen 
with  pistil.     All  the  organs  of  our  typical  flower  are  described  as  free. 


94 


THE    FLORAL   ENVELOPS,    OR    PERIANTH. 


463.  HYPOGYNOUS  (VTTW,  under,  yvvf),  pistil)  is  an  adjective  term  in 
frequent  use,  denoting  that  the  organs  are  inserted  into  the  receptacle 
under   or   at  the  base   of  the  free  pistil    or 
ovary.     It  is,  therefore,  not  applicable  to   the 
pistil  itself.     Thus  the  outer  organs  of  butter- 
cups are  hypogynous.  306 

805 


304  SOT 

Section  of  flowers.  304,  Jeffersonia  diphylla,  hypogynous.  305,  Viola  rotundifolia.  306 
Phaseolus  multiflorus  (bean,  organs  spirally  twisted).  307,  Pyrus  (Pear),  perigynous  ;  ovaries 
nearly  inclosed.  308,  Primus  (plum) ;  ovary  not  inclosed. 

464.  PERIGYNOUS  (rapt,  around)  denotes  that  the  organ  is  inserted 
on  the  calyx-tube  around  the  free  ovary.     Thus  in  Phlox  the  stamens 
are  inserted  on  the  tube  of  the  corolla.     In  cherry  both  stamens  and 
petals  are  (apparently)  inserted  on  the  calyx-tube.     The  calyx  can  never 
be  perigynous. 

465.  EPIGYNOUS  (e-rrt,  upon)  denotes  that  all  the  organs  are  appa- 
rently inserted  upon  the  ovary,  as  seen  in  the  apple,  caraway,  sunflower. 
The  common  phrases  "  calyx  superior,"  "  ovary  inferior,"  have  the  same 
signification  as  calyx  epigynous,  all  implying  the  apparent  insertion 
of  the  organs  upon  or  above  the  ovary. 

466.  THERE  is  ALSO  ANOTHER  SET  OP  TERMS  in  use,  of  the  same  application, 
founded  upon  a  more  modern  view  of  the  floral  structure,  viz.,  "calyx  adherent," 
"  ovary  adherent."'    "Which  is  the  better  form  of  expression  will  depend  upon  our 
location  of  the  receptacle. 


THE    FLORAL    ENVELOPS,    OR   PERIANTH.  95 

310  311 


309,  Eibes  aureum  (Missouri  Currant) ;  stamens  and  petals  perig. ;  ovary  inferior.  310,  Saxi- 
fraga  Yirginiensis ;  half  superior.  811,  Fuchsia  gracilis  (Ear-drop);  inferior;  stamens  epipe- 

talous. 

467.  In  the  cases  above  cited,  it  is  commonly  taught  that  the  receptacle  is  lo- 
cated at  the  base  of  the  ovary,  and  that  all  the  organs  thence  arising  are  adherent 
to  its  sides.     Another  doctrine  is  also  taught,  viz.,  that  the  receptacle  itself  may  be 
elevated  and  become  perigynous  or  epigynous,  or,  in  other  words,  the  ovary  may  be 
imbedded  in  the  foot-stalk.     That  it  is  so  in  the  rose  (2 $9)  we  can  hardly  doubt. 
The  so-called  calyx-tube  of  the  cherry,  peach,  is  certainly  an  analogous  structure, 
more  expanded,  and  so  is  the  more  contracted  "  calyx  tube"  of  the  apple,  pome- 
granate.   The  analogy  extends  throughout  the  Roseworts,  and  perhaps  still  further. 

468.  CALYX  HALF-SUPERIOR.     Calyx  superior  or  free,  ovary  inferior 
or  free,  are  all  phrases  of  the  same  import  as  calyx  hypogynous.     Be- 
tween the  two  conditions,  calyx  superior  and  calyx  inferior,  there  are 
numerous  gradations,  of  which  one  only  is   defined,  to  wit,  calyx  half- 
superior,  as  exemplified  in  the  mock  orange  (ana  313). 

469.  SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  THE  PERIANTH,   whether  calyx,  corolla,  or  both,  have 
been  named  and  described.     "We  may  arrange  them  thus : — 

POLYPETALOUS,  regular — Cruciform,  rosaceous,  caryophyllaceous,  liliaceous.  Ir- 
regular— papilionaceous. 

MONOPETALOUS,  regular  mostly — rotate,  cup-shaped,  campanulate,  urceolate,  ran- 
nel-form,  salver-form,  tubular.  Irregular — ligulate,  labiate,  orchidaceous. 

470.  CRUCIFORM    (crux,  a  cross)  or  cross-shaped,  implies  that  four 
long  clawed,  spreading  petals  stand  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  as  in 
the  flowers  of  the  mustard  family  (Cruciferee)  in  general. 

471.  ROSACEOUS,  rose-like ;  a  flower  with  five  short-clawed,  spread- 
ing petals. 

472.  CARYOPHYLLACEOUS, pink-like  ;  a  five-petaled  corolla,  with  long, 
erect  claws  and  spreading  laminae. 

463.  LILIACEOUS,  like  the  lily ;  a  flower  with  a  six-leaved  perianth, 
each  leaf  gradually  spreading  so  as  to  resemble,  as  a  whole,  the  funnel- 
form. 


96 


THE    FLORAL    ENVELOPS,    OR    PERIANTH. 
818  814  815 


Forms  of  corollas.    812*  Cheiranthus  (stock).    813,  Silene  regia  (scarlet  catchfly).    814,  Pyrus 
coronaria.    815,  Amaryllis  (Atamasco  lily). 

474.  PAPILIONACEOUS,  butterfly-shaped ;  a  corolla  consisting  of  five 
dissimilar  petals,  designated  thus  :  the  upper,  largest,  and  exterior  pe- 
tal is  the  banner  (vexillum)  ;  the  two  lateral,  half-exterior,  are  the  wings 
(alee) ;  the  two  lower,  interior  petals,  often  united  at  their  lower  mar- 
gin, are  the  keel  (carina).  The  flowers  of  the  pea,  locust,  clover,  and 
of  the  great  family  of.  the  Leguminosse  in  general  are  examples. 


310 


at; 


316,  Papilionaceous  flower  of  the  Pea.    317,  Displayed ;  v,  the  vexillum ;  a,  a,  the  ahe;  c,  c,  the 
earinae.    318,  Section  of  flower  of  Dicentra  Cucullaria. 

475.  ROTATE,  wheel-shaped  or  star-shaped,  is  a  monpetalous  form, 
with  tube  very  short,  if  any,  and  a  flat,  spreading  border,  as  the  calyx 
of  chickweed,  cprolla  of  Trientalis,  elder.     It  is  sometimes  a  little  ir- 
regular, as  in  mullein. 

476.  CUP-SHAPED,  with  pieces  cohering  into  a  concave  border,  as  in 
the  calyx  of  mallows,  corolla  of  Kalmia,  etc. 

477.  CAMPANULATE  or  bell-shaped  ;  when  the  tube  widens  abruptly 
at  base  and  gradually  in  the  border,  as  in  the  harebell,  Canterbury  bell. 


THE    FLORAL    ENVELOPS,    OR    PERIANTH. 


97 


47.8.  URCEOLATE,  urn-shaped ;  an  oblong  or  globular  corolla  with  a 
narrow  opening,  as  the  whortleberry,  heath. 

479.  FUNNEL-FORM  (infundibuliform),  narrow  tubular  below,  gradu- 
ally enlarging  to  the  border,  as  morning-glory. 

480.  SALVER-FORM  (hypocrateriform),  the  tube  ending  abruptly  in  a 
horizontal  border,  as  in  Phlox,  Petunia,  both  of  which  are  slightly  ir- 
regular. 

481.  TUBULAR,  a  cylindraceous  form  spreading  little  or  none  at  the 
border,  as  the  calyx  of  the  pink,  corolla  of  the  honeysuckle.     It  is 
often  a  little  curved.     Tubular  flowers  are  common  in  the  Composite, 
as  the  thistle,  sunflower,  when  they  are  often  associated  with 

482.  LIGULATE  (ligula,  a  little  tongue),  apparently  formed  by  the 
splitting  of  the  tubular  on  one  side.     The  notches  at  the  end  plainly 
indicate  the  number  of  united  petals  composing  it,  as  also  do  the  paral- 
lel, longitudinal  seams. 

483.  LABIATE,  bilabiate,  lip-shaped,  resembling  the  mouth  of  an  ani- 
mal.    This  very  common  form  results  from  the  unequal  union  of  the 
parts,  accompanied  with  other  irregularities.     In  the  labiate  corolla 
three  petals  unite  more  or  less  to  form  the  lower  lip,  and  two  to  form 
the  upper.     In  the  calyx,  when  bilabiate,  this  rule  is  reversed,  accord- 


Forms  of  corollas.  -318,  Campanula  Americana ;  rotate.  319,  Campanula  divaricata. 
Andromeda,  urceolate.  321,  Convolvulus  (morning-glory).  322.  Petunia.  323,  Lonicera  Bern  - 
pervirens  (honeysuckle).  324,  Dandelion  :  lieulate  corolla  (c),  5-toothed  ;  a,  five  anthers  united 
into  a  tube  around  s,  the  style.  025,  Synandra  trrandiflora,  ringent,  upper  lip  2-lobed,  lower 
3-lobed.  326,  Linaria  (yellow  snapdragon),  personate.  327,  Cypripedium  acaule,  orchidaceous. 

7 


98 


THE    FLORAL    ENVELOPS,    OR    PERIANTH. 


ing  to  the  law  of  alternation  of  organs ;  two  sepals  are  united  in  the 
lower  lip  and  three  in  the  upper,  as  seen  in  the  sage  and  the  Labiate 
Order  generally.  Labiate  flowers  are  said  to  be  galeate  or  hclmeted 
when  the  upper  lip  is  concave,  as  in  catmint ;  ringent  or  gaping  when 
the  throat  or  mouth  is  wide  open  ;  personate  or  masked  when  the  throat 
is  closed  as  with  a  palate,  like  the  snapdragon. 

484.  ORCHIDACEOUS,  a  form  of  the  perianth  peculiar  to  the  Orchis 
with  that  large  and  singular  tribe  in  general.     It  is  a  6-parted  double 
perianth,   very  irregular,  characterized   chiefly  by  its  lip  (labellum), 
which  is  the  upper  petal  (lower  by  the  twisting  of  the  ovary)  enlarged 
and  variously  deformed. 

Certain  reduced  forms  of  the  perianth  require  notice  here  : 

485.  PAPPUS  (7ra7r7ro<:,  grandfather,  alluding  to  his  gray  hairs)  is  a 
term  applied  to  the  hair-like  calyx  of  the  florets  of  the  Composite  and 
other  kindred   orders.      The  florets  ,of  this  order  are  collected  into 
heads  so  compactly  that  the  calyxes  have  not  room  for  expansion  in 
the  ordinary  way.     The  pappus  is  commonly  persistent  and  often  in- 
creases as  the  fruit  matures,  forming  a  feathery  sail  to  waft  away  the 
seed  through  the  air,  as  in  the  dandelion  and  thistle.     It  varies  greatly 
in  form  and  size,  as  seen  in  the  cuts,  sometimes  consisting  of  scales, 
sometimes   of  hairs,   again  of  feathers  or   bristles.      Sometimes  it  is 
mounted  on  a  stipe,  which  is  the  beak  of  the  fruit. 

330  328 


332 


Cypsela  (incorrectly  called  acheniuTn)  of  the  Composite,  with  various  forms  of  pappus. 
Eclipta  procumbens,  no  pappus.  329,  Ambrosia  trifida.  330,IIelianthus  grosse-serratus,  pappus 
2-awned.  331,  Ageratum  conizoides,  pappus  of  five  scales.  332,  Mulgedium,  capillary  pappua 
— cypsela  slightly  rostrate.  333,  Lactuca  elongata,  rostrate  cypsela. 

486.  OTHER  REDUCTIONS.     Again,  the  calyx  or  the  limb  of  the  calyx 
is  reduced  to  a  mere  rim,  as  seen  in  the  Umbelliferae.     In  the  amenta- 
ceous orders  the  whole  perianth  diminishes  to  a  shallow  cup,  as  in  the 
poplar,  willow,  or  altogether  disappears,  as  in  the  birch,  ash,  lizard-tail. 
(264-267). 

487.  SET^E,  meaning  bristles  in  general;  is  a  term  specifically  used  to 
denote  the  reduced  perianth  of  the  sedges.     In  the  bog-rush  (Scirpus) 
there  is,  outside  the  stamens,  a  circle  of  six  setas,  which  doubtless  rep- 
resent a  6-leaved  perianth.     In  the  cotton-grass  (Eriphorum)  the  setae  are 
multiplied  and  persistent  on  the  fruit,  becoming  long  and  cotton-like. 


THE    FLORAL    ENVELOPS,    OR    PERIANTH. 


99 


488.  PERIGYNIUM  is  the  name  given 
to  the  urceolate  perianth  of  Carex,  in- 
vesting the  ovary  but  allowing  the  style 
to  issue  at  its  summit.     It  is  evidently 
composed  of  three  united  sepals. 

489.  GLUMES   AND    PALES   represent 
the  floral  envelops,  or  rather  the  invo- 
lucre of  the  Grasses.     Their  alternating 
arrangement  clearly  distinguishes,  them 
from  a  perianth.     They  occur  in  pairs, 
the  smaller  usually  above.     The  glumes 
envelop  the  spikelet,  the  pales  the  single 
flower,  and  often  within  the  pales  are 
two  or  three    scales   representing   the 
perianth,  surrounding  the  stamens  and 
ovary,  all  which  are  illustrated  in  the 
wheat.     (195.) 

490.  THE  DURATION   of  the  calyx  and  corolla  varies  widely,  and  is 
marked  by  certain  general  terms.     It  is  caducous  when  it  falls  off  im- 
mediately, as  the  calyx  of  poppy,  corolla  of  grape  ;  deciduous  when  it 
falls  with  the  stamens,  as  in  most  plants;  and  persistent,  if  it  remain 
until  the  fruit  ripens,  as  the  calyx  of  apple.     If  it  continue  to  grow 
after  flowering,  it  is  accrescent,  and  if  it  wither  without  falling  off  it  i* 
marescent. 


334,  Flower  of  Scirpus  lacastris,  mag- 
nified ;  consisting  of  sixsetai,  three  sta- 
mens, three  pistils  united,  except  the 
stigmas.  335,  Flowex  of  Carex  rivularis 
9 ,  with  fft  its  glume, p,  its  bottle-shaped 
perigyninm,  3-toothed  at  top,  envelop- 
ing the  triple  ovary  ;  stigmas,  three. 


CHAPTER     XII 


OF     THE     ESSENTIAL      ORGAN  S. 
§  THE   STAMENS,    OR    ANDRCECIUM. 

491.  POSITION.     Within  the  safe   inclosure  of  the  floral  envelops 
stand  the  essential  organs — the  stamens  and  pistils,  clearly  distinguish- 
able from  the  perianth  by  their  more  slight  and  delicate  forms,  and 
from  each-  other  by  various  marks.     In  the  complete  flower  the  andrce- 
cium  next  succeeds  the  corolla  in  the  order  of  position,  being  the  third 
set,  counting  from  the  calyx. 

492.  A  PERFECT  STAMEN  consists  of  two  parts — the  filament,  corre- 
sponding with  the  petiole  of  the  typical  leaf,  and  the  anther,  answering 
to  the  blade.     Within  the  cells  of  the  anther  the  pollen  is  produced,  a 
substance  essential  to  the  fertility  of  the  flower.     Hence  the  anther 
alone  is  the  essential  part  of  the  stamen. 


100 


THE    STAMENS,    OB   ANDROECIUM. 


Audrcecium  (and  gyncecium)  of  Frankenia  (after  Peyer).  337,  Stamen  (adnate)  of  morning- 
glory.  338,  Same  enlarged,  with  pollen  grains  discharged  ;  /,  filament ;  «,  «,  anther,  2-lobed  ;  c, 
top  of  the  connectile.  839,  Ranunculus.  340,  Same,  cut  transversely.^  341,  Iris  cut  transversely 
(extrorse).  342,  Amaryllis,  versatile.  343,  Larkspur,  innate.  344,  Same,  cut 

493.  THE  FILAMENT  (filum,  a,  thread)  is  the  stalk  supporting  the 
anther  at  or  near  its  top.     It  is  ordinarily  slender  and  filiform,  yet 
firmly  sustaining  itself  with  the  anther  in  position.     Sometimes  it  is 
capillary  and  pendulous  with  its  weight,  as  in  the  Grasses. 

494.  THE  ANTHER  is  regularly  an  oblong  body  at  the  summit  of  the 
filament,  composed  of  two  hollow  parallel  lobes  joined  to  each  other  and 
to  the  filament  by  the  connectile.     In  front  of  the  connectile,  looking 
toward  the  pistil,  there  is  usually  a  furrow  ;  on  its  back  a  ridge,  and  on 
the  face  of  each  lobe  a  seam,  the  usual  place  of  dehiscence  or  opening, 
all  running  parallel  with  the  filament  and  connectile. 

The  stamen,  as  thus  described,  may  be  considered  regular  or  typical  in  form,  and 
is  well  exemplified  in  that  of  the  buttercup  (Fig.  339).  But  the  variations  of  struc- 
ture are  as  remarkable  here  as  in  other  organs,  depending  on  circumstances  like  the 
following — 

495.  ATTACHMENT  OP  FILAMENT  TO  ANTHER.     This  may  occur  in  three  ways. 
The  anther  is  said  to  be  innate  when  it  stands  centrally  erect  on  the  top  of  tlje  fila- 
ment, adnate  when  it  seems  attached  to  one  side  of  the  filament,  versatile  when 
connected  by  a  single  point  in  the  back  to  the  top  of  the  filament. 

496.  DEHISCENCE,  or  the  modes  of  opening,  are  also  three,  viz.,  valvular,  where 
the  seam  opens  vertically  its  whole  length,  which  is  the  usual  way ;  porous  where 
the  cells  open  by  a  chink  or  pore  usually  at  the  top,  as  in  Rhododendron  and  po- 
tato ;  opercular  when  by  a  lid  opening  upward,  as  in  sassafras,  berberis.     (346.) 

497.  THE  FACING-  OF  THE  ANTHER  is  also  an  important  character.     It  is  introrse 
when  the  lines  of  dehiscence  look  toward  the  pistil,  as  in  violet ;  extrorse  when 
they  look  outward  toward  the  corolla,  as  in  Iris. 

498.  THE  CONNECTILE  is  usually  a  mere  prolongation  of  the  filament,  terminating, 
not  at  the  base,  but  at  the  top  of  the  anther.     If  it  fall  short,  the  anther  will  be 
emarginate.     Sometimes  it  outruns  the  anther  and  tips  it  with  a  terminal  append- 
age of  some  sort,  as  in  violet,  oleander,  Paris.     Again,  its  base  may  be  dilated  into 
spurs,  as  in  two  of  the  stamens  of  violet. 

499.  DIMIDIATE  ANTHER.    If  the  connectile  be  laterally  dilated,  as  we  see  gra- 
dually done  in  the  various  species  of  the  Labiate  Order,  the  lobes  of  the  anther 
will  be  separated,  forming  two  dimidiate  anthers  (halved  anthers)  on  one  filament, 
as  in  sage,  Prunella.    Such  are,  of  course,  1 -celled.     (351.) 


THE    STAMENS,    OR    ANDRECIUM. 


101 


845        346     347        343 


353          354 


Peculiar  forms  of  stamens.  345,  Pyrola  rotundifolia ;  p,  dehiscence  by  pores  at  top.  350 
Vaccinium  uliginosum;  p,  dehiscence.  347,  Berberis  aquifolium,  anthers  opening  (346)  by 
valves  upward.  348,  Anther  of  Violet,  introrse,  with  an  appendage  at  top.  349,  Oleander,  sagit- 
tate, appendaged.  354,  Catalpa,  lobes  of  anther  separated.  351,  Sage,  lobes  of  anther  widely 
separated,  on  stipes ;  &,  barren  lobe  without  pollen.  852,  Malva,  anther  1-celled.  353,  Ephedra 
(after  Peyer),  anther  4-celled. 

500.  THE  CELLS  OF  THE  ANTHERS  are  at  first  commonly  four,  all 
parallel,  becoming  two  only  at  maturity.     In  some  plants  the  four  are 
retained,  as  in  the  anthers  of  Ephedra.     (353.)     In  others,  as  mallows, 
all  the  cells  coalesce  into  one.     (352.) 

501.  APPENDAGES  of  many  kinds  distinguish  the  stamens  of  different  species. 
In  the  Ericaceae  there  are  horns,  spurs,  tails,  queues,  etc.     In  onions  and  garlic  the 
filament  is  2  or  3-forked.  bearing  the  anther  on  one  of  the  tips.     Sometimes  a  pair 
of  appendages  appear  at  base,  as  if  stipulate.     It  is  often  conspicuously  clothed  with 
hairs,  as  in  Tradescantia. 

855  357  359 


356  358  360  361 

Essential  organs.  355,  Rhododendron,  five  stamens  (s),  one  pistil  (p\  oblique  or  slightly  ir- 
regular. 357,  Flower  of  J2sculus  (Buckeye),  regular,  5- toothed/ calyx  (c),  very  irregular  4-pe- 
taled  corolla,  seven  stamens  unequal,  one  style  (s).  359,  Flower  of  Hydrastis ;  «,  sepals  decidu- 
ous. 360,  Same,  showing  the  distinct  pistils  and  one  stamen  remaining.  361,  Anemone  thalic- 
troides,  the  gynoecium  of  distinct,  ribbed  achenia.  356,  Trillium,  six  stamens  (*),  three  pistils 
(p).  858,  Staphylea  trifolia. 


102 


THE    STAMENS,    OR    ANDBECIUM. 


502.  STAMINODIA,  or  sterile  filaments  with  abortive  anthers  or  none,  occur  singly 
in  many  of  the  Figworts  and  Labiates,  or  in  entire  whorls  next  within  the  petals, 
alternating  with  them,  as  in  loose-strife ;  in  all  cases  restoring  the  symmetry  of  the 
flowers.     They  are  generally  reduced  in  size,1  as  in  Scrophularia,  rarely  enlarged,  as 
in  beardtongue  (Pentstemon). 

503.  THE  NUMBER  of  the  stamens  is  said  to  be  definite  when  not  ex- 
ceeding twenty,  as  is  sometimes  definitely  expressed  by  such  terms  as 
follow,  compounded  by  the  Greek  numerals,  viz.,  monandrous,  having 
one  stamen  to  eaoli  flower  ;  diandrous,  with  two  stamens  ;  pentandrous, 
with  five  stamens.     If  the  number  exceeds  twenty,  it  is  said  to  be  in- 
definite (denoted  thus,  oo  )  or  polyandrous. 

504.  THE  POSITION  or  insertion  of  the  stamens  (§  463)  maybe  more 
definitely  stated  here,  as  hypogynous,  on  the  receptacle  below  the  ovaries ; 
perigynous,  on  the  calyx  around  the  ovary  ;  epipetalous,  on  the  corolla, 
as  in  Phlox ;  epigynous,  on  the  ovary  at  its  summit,  and  gynandrous 
(yvvri,  pistil,  dvdpes,  stamens)  on  the  pistil,  that  is,  when  the  stamens 
are  adherent  to  the  style,  as  in  Orchis, 

505.  INEQUALITY  IN  LENGTH  is  definitely  marked  in  two  cases,  as 
tetradynamous  (rerpa^  four,  dvvafii^  power)  when  the  stamens  are 
six,  whereof  four  are  longer  than  the  other  two,  as  in  all  the  Crucifers ; 
didynamous,  where  the  stamens  are  four,  two  of  them  longer  than  the 
other  two,  as  in  all  the  Labiates,  etc. 

366  365  864  363  362 


362,  Collinsia  verna:  f,  a  flower  enlarged,  cut,  showing  the  slightly  didynamous  stamens,  etc. 
363,  Stamens  (diadelphous)  of  a  Leguminous  plant.  364,  Stamens  (syngenecious)  of  a  Com- 
posite ;/  filaments  distinct ;  a,  anthers  united;  ft,  stigmas  revolute,  etc.  365,  Tetradynamous 
stamens  of  a  Crucifer.  366,  Gynandrous  column  of  Cypripedium ;  o,  ovary ;  r,  torus ;  «,  sterile 
stamen  ;  a,  two  pollinia ;  c,  stigma. 

506.  COHESION  is  as  frequent  with  stamens  as  with  petals.  They 
are  monadelphous  (ddetyog,  a  brother)  when  they  are  all  united,  as  in 
mallow,  into  one  set  or  brotherhood  by  the  filaments  ;  diadelphous  in 
two  sets,  whether  equal  or  unequal,  as  in  pea,  squirrel-corn ;  polyadel- 


THE    STAMENS,    OR    ANDRECIUM. 


103 


phous,  many  sets,  as  in  St.  John'swort ;  and  syngenesious,  when  they 
are  united  by  their  anthers,  as  in  the  Composite.     Finally, 

507.  THE  ABSENCE  of  the  stamens  altogether,  whether  by  abortion, 
as  in  the  $  flowers  of  Yeratrum,  or  by  suppression,  as  in  oak,  occurs 
in  various  modes,  rendering  the  plant  monoecious  (  8  ),  dioecious  (  $  $  ), 
or  polygamous  (  $  &  $  ),  as  already  explained  (§  421). 

508.  THE  POLLEN  is  in  appearance  a  small,  yellow  dust,  contained  in 
the  cells  of  the  anther.     When  viewed  with  the  microscope  it  appears 
as  grains  of  various  forms,  usually  spheroidal,  or  oval,  sometimes  tri- 
angular or  polyhedral,  but  always  of  the  same  form  and  appearance  in 
the  same  species.     Externally  they  are  curiously,  and  often  elegantly 
figured  with  stripes,  bands,  dots,  checks,  etc. 


370 

Pollen  grains.    367,  Pinus  larico.    36S,  Basella  rubra.    369,  Ranunculus  repens.    370,  Scoly- 
mus  grandiflorus.    371,  Passiflora  incarnata. 

509.  EACH  GRAIN  OF  POLLEN  is  a  mem- 
branous cell  or  sack  containing   a  fluid. 
Its  coat  is  double,  the  outer  is  more  thick 
and  firm,  exhibiting  one  or  more  breaks 
where  the  inner  coat,  which  is  very  thin 
and  expansible,  is  uncovered.  In  the  fluid 
are  suspended  molecules 

of  inconceivable  minute- 
ness, said  to  possess  a  tre- 
mulous motion.  When 
the  membrane  is  exposed 
to  moisture  it  swells  and 
bursts,  discharging  its 
contents. 

510.  POLLINIA.       In 
the  Orchids  and  Silkweed 


372 


372j  gecti(;n  of  the  pa^on-flower  (Passiflora  c cerulea) ; 
&,  bracts  of  the  involucre ;  «,  sepals  ;  p,  petals ;  tf,er,  stami 
terile  filaments  ;  c,  stipe  ;o,  ovary ;  d,  stamens ; 


104 


THE    PISTILS,    OB    GYNO2CIUM. 


tribe,  the  pollen  grains  do  not  separate  as  into  a  dust  or  powder, 
but  all  cohere  into  masses  called  pollinia,  accompanied  by  a  viscid 
fluid. 


THE   PISTILS,    OR   GYNCECIUM. 

511.  POSITION.  The  Gyncecium  occupies  the  center  of  the  flower  at 
the  termination  of  the  axis.  It  consists  regularly  of  a  circle  of  distinct 
pistils,  (§  405),  symmetrical  in  number  with  the  other  circles.  It  is 
subject  to  great  variation.  The  pistil  may  be  distinct  and  simple,  as  in 
columbine,  or  coherent  in  various  degrees  into  a  compound  body,  as  in 
St.  John's  wort. 

379  376 


871 


872       878 


8T5 


377 


378 


Pistils.  372,  Symphytum,  basilar  style,  ovary  4-parted.  871,  ?  Fl.  of  Emblica  (Euphorbia- 
cese),  branching  styles.  373,  Mirabilis  Jalapa,  globular  stig.  377,  Fl.  of  Luzula,  stigmas  linaer. 
374,  Feathery  stigmas  of  a  grass.  379,  Stigmas  of  Aster.  375,  Rumes.  376,  Poppy.  378,  Filiform 
stigma  of  Zea  Mays,  (Corn). 

512.  EXCEPTION.  Also  instead  of  being  free  and  superior,  as  it  regu- 
larly should  be,  it  may  adhere  to  the  other  circles,  as  already  explained 
(§  462),  and  become  inferior,  that  is,  apparently  placed   below  the 
flower,  as  in  the  currant. 

513.  THE  NUMBER  of  the  pistils  is  by  no  means  confined  to  the  ra- 
dical of  the  flower.     They  may  be  increased  by  multiples,  becoming  a 
spiral  on  a  lengthened  receptacle,  as  in  tulip-tree,  or  .still  remaining  a 
circle,  as  in  poppy.     On  the  other  hand  they  may  be  reduced  in  num- 
ber often  to  one,  as  in  cherry,  pea.     Certain  terms  are   employed  to 
denote  the  number  of  pistils  in  the  flower,  such  as  monogynous,  with 
one  pistil,  trigynous,  with  three,  polygynous,  with  many,  etc. 

514.  THE  SIMPLE  PISTIL  may  usually  be  known  from  the  compound, 
by  its  one-sided  forms — having  two  sides  similar  and  two  dissimilar.   If 
the  pistils  appear  distinct,  they  are  all  simple,  never  being  united  into 
more  than  one  set,  as  the  stamens  often  are. 


THE    PISTILS,    OR    GYNCECIUM. 


105 


515.  THE  PARTS  of  a  simple  pistil  are  three,  the  ovary  at  base,  the 
stigma  at  the  summit,  and  the  style,  intervening.     Like  the  filament 
the  style  is  not  essential,  and  when  it  is  wanting,  the  'stigma  is  sessile 
upon  the  ovary,  as  in  crowfoot.     In  order  to  understand  the  relation  of 
these  parts  we  must  needs  first  study 

516.  THE  MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  PISTIL.  As  before  stated,  (§  380),  the 
pistil  consists  of  a  modified  leaf  called  a  carpel  (nap-nog,  fruit),  or  carpel- 
lary leaf.     This  leaf*is  folded  together  (induplicate)  toward  the  axis,  so 
that  the  upper  surface  becomes  the  inner,  while  the  lower  becomes  the 
outer  surface  of  the  ovary.     By  this  arrangement  two  sutures  or  seams 
will  be  formed,  the  dorsal,  at  the  back  by  the  midvein,  the  ventral,  in 
front  by  the  joined  margins  of  the  leaf. 


378  bis 


879  bis 


888 


384 


385,  Simple  pistil  of  Strawberry,  the  style  lateral.  386,  Simple  pistil  of  Crowfoot,  cut  to 
show  the  ovule.  380,  Simple  pistil  of  the  Cherry.  381,  Vertical  section  showing  the  ovule  (o), 
style  («),  stigma  (a).  882,  Cross-section  of  the  same.  884,  Compound  pistil  of  Spring-beauty. 
383,  Cross-section  of  the  same  showing  the  3  cells  of  the  ovary.  378,  Expanded  carpellary  leaf 
of  the  double  cherry.  379,  The  same  partly  folded  as  if  to  form  a  pistil. 

517.  ILLUSTRATION*.     This  view  of  the  pistil  is  remarkably  confirmed  and  illus- 
trated by  the  flowers  of  the  double  cherry,  where  the  pistil  may  be  seen  in  every 
degree  of  transition,  reverting  toward  the  form  of  a  leaf.    This  carpellary  leaf 
stands  in' the  place  of  the  pistil,  having  the  edges  infolded  toward  each  other,  the 
midvein  prolonged  and  dilated  at  the  apex. 

518.  If  this  be  compared  with  the  pistil  of  the  cherry  seen  in  the  figure  (378, 
379),  no  doubt  can  be  entertained  that  the  two  sides  of  the  leaf  correspond  to  the 
walls  of  the  ovary,  the  margins  to  the  ventral  suture,  the  mid  vein  to  the  dorsal  su- 
ture, and  the  lengthened  apex  to  the  style  and  stigma.     Sometimes  the  flower  con- 
tains two  such  leaves,  which  always  present  their  faces  toward  each  other.     This 
corresponds  to  the  position  of  the  true  carpels,  in  which  the  ventral  sutures  of  both 
are  contiguous. 

519.  TEE  DOCTRINE  DEDUCED.    Many  other  plants,  as  the  rose,  Anemone,  Ranun- 
culus, flowering  almond,  exhibit  similar  transformations  of  the  pistil,  making  it  prob- 
able that  it  is  formed  upon  the  same  plan  in  all  plants.     The  ovary,  therefore,  is  the 
blade  of  a  leaf,  folded  into  a  sack  :  the  style  is  the  lengthened  apex  folded  into  a 
tube ;  the  stigma,  a  thickened  and  denuded  portion  of  the  upper  margin  of  the 
leaf. 


106 


THE    PISTILS,    OR    GYNCECIUM. 


520.  THE  PLACENTAE  are  usually  prominent  lines  or  ridges  extending 
along  the  ventral  suture  witliin  the  cell  of  the  ovary,  and  bearing  the 
ovules.     They  are  developed  at  each  of  the  two  edges  of  the  carpellary 
leaf,  and  are  consequently  closely  parallel  when  those  edges  are  united, 
forming  one  double  placenta  in  the  cell  of  each  ovary. 

521.  THE  SIMPLE  CARPEL,  with -all  its  parts,  is  completely  exemplified  in  the  pea- 
pod.     "When  this  is  laid  open  at  the  ventral  suture,  the  loaf  form  becomes  manifest, 
with  the  peas  (ovules)  arranged  in  an  alternate  order  along  each  margin,  so  as  to 
form  but  one  row  when  the  pod  is  closed.   In  the  pod  of  columbine  the  ovules  form 
two  distinct  rows ;  in  the  simple  plum  carpel  each  margin  bears  a  single  ovule,  and 
in  the  one-ovuled  cherry  only  one  of  the  margins  is  fruitful 

522.  THE  STIGMA  is  the  glandular  orifice  of  the  ovary,  communicat- 
ing with  it  either  directly  or  through  the  tubiform  style.     It  is  usually 
globular  and  terminal,  often  linear  and  lateral,  but  subject  to  great  va- 
riations in  form.     It  is  sometimes  double   or  halved,  or  2-lobed,  even 
when  belonging  to  a  single  carpel  or  to  a  simple  style,  as  in  Linden, 
where  these  carpels  are  surmounted  by  three  pairs  of  stigmas. 

523.  THE  COMPOUND  PISTIL  consists  of  the  united  circle  of  pistils, 
just  as  the  monopetalous  corolla  consists  of  the  united  circle  of  petals. 
The  union  occurs  in  every  degree,  always  commencing  at  the  base  of 
the  ovary  and  proceeding  upward.     Thus  in  columbine  we  see  the  car- 
pels (pistils)  quite  distinct ;  in  early  saxifrage  cohering  just  at  base ;  in 
pink  as  far  as  the  top  of  the  ovaries,  with  styles  distinct ;  in  evening 
primrose  to  the  top  of  the  styles,  with  stigmas  distinct ;  and  in  Rhodo- 
dendron the  union  is  complete  throughout. 

887 


387,  Ovary  (follicle)  of  Larkspur,  composed  of  single  carpellary  leaf.  383,  Ovaries  of  the  Col- 
umbine, five,  contiguous  but  distinct  3S9,  Compound  ovary  of  Hypericum,  of  carpels  united 
below  with  distinct  styles.  390,  Ovary  of  another  Hypericum  of  three  carpels  completely  united. 
391,  Ovary  of  Flax ;  carpels  five,  united  below,  distinct  above.  392,  Dianthus  (Pink).  393. 
Saxifraga. 

524.  To  DETERMINE  THE  NUMBER  OF  CARPELS  in  a  compound  ovary 
is  an  important  matter.  It  may  be  known,  1,  by  the  number  of  styles ; 
2,  by  the  number  of  free  stigmas  (remembering  that  these  organs  are 
liable  to  be  halved,  §  522) ;  3,  by  the  lobes,  angles,  or  seams  of  the 
ovary  ;  4,  by  the  cells  ;  5,  by  the  placenta. 


THE    PISTILS,    OB    GYNECIUM. 


107 


525,  Two  MODES  OF  COHESION  in  the  carpellary  circle  greatly  affect 
the  structure  of  the  ovary  and  fruit.     First  and  regularly,  the  carpels 
may  be  closed  as  when  simple,  and  conjoined  by  their  sides  and  fronts, 
as  in  lily  and  marsh  mallow.     In  this  case, 

1,  The  compound  ovary  will  have  as  many  cells  as  carpels. 

2,  The  partitions  between  the  cells,  *.  e.,  the  dissepiments  (dissepio, 
to  separate)  will  each  be  double,  will  meet  in  the  center,  will  be  verti- 
cal and  alternate  with  the  stigmas. 

3,  The  single  carpel  can  have  no  true  dissepiment.     If  any  ever 
occur  it  is  regarded  as  spurious,  being  a  membranous  expansion  of  the 
dorsal  suture  or  the  placentae,  as  in  flax. 

4,  The  placentae  as  well  as  the  ventral  suture  will  be  axial,  and  the 
dorsal  suture  on  the  outer  wall,  opposite  the  stigmas. 

526.  AGAIN,  the  carpels  may  each  be  open  and  conjoined  by  their 
edges,  as  the  petals  in  a  monopetalous  corolla.     So  it  is  in  the  com- 
pound ovary  of  the  violet,  rock-rose.     In  this  case, 

1,  There  will  be  no  dissepiment  (unless  spurious,  as  in  the  Cruciferae), 
and  but  one  cell. 

2,  The  placenta  of  each  carpel  will  be  separated  and  carried  back 
to  the  wall  of  the  ovary,  i.   e.,   they  will  become  parietal  (paries, 
a  wall.) 

52  7.  INTEKMEDIATE  CONDITIONS.  Between  the  two  conditions  of  axile  (or  cen- 
tral) and  parietal  placentae  we  find  all  degrees  of  transition,  as  illustrated  in  the 
different  species  of  St.  John'swort,  and  in  poppy,  where  the  inflected  margins  of 

the  carpels  cany  the  placentae  inward,  well 

\     \  \  /  K  J  \  I          1      nigh  to  the  axis-     Moreover>  the  Placentae 

are  not  always  mere  marginal  lines,   but 


394  395  896  897 

397,  Flower  of  Dodecatheon  Meadia.    394,  Vertical  section  showing  the  free  central  placenta. 
395,  Vertical  section  of  Lucojum  (Snow-drop).     396,  Cross  section  of  ovary. 


108 


THE     OVULES. 


often  wide  spaces  covering  large  portions  of  the  walls  of  the  cell,  as  in  poppy, 
water-lily,  and  in  other  cases,  as  Datura,  they  become  large  and  fleshy,  nearly  fill- 
ing the  cell. 

528.  A  FREE  AXILE  PLACENTA,  without  dissepiments,  occurs  in  some 
compound,  one-celled  ovaries,  as  in  the  pink  and  primrose  orders.  This 
anomaly 'is  explained  in  two  ways  :  first,  by  the  obliteration  of  the  early 
formed  dissepiments,  as  is  actually  seen  to  occur  in  the  pinks  ;  secondly, 
by  supposing  the  placenta  to  be,  at  least  in  some  cases,  an  axial  rather 
than  a  marginal  growth ;  that  is,  to  grow  from  the  point  of  the  axis 
rather  than  from  the  margin  of  the  carpellary  leaf,  for  in  primrose  no 
dissepiments  ever  appear. 

404  398  405 


403 


102 


400 


398.  Sainolus  Valorandi,  section  of  flower  showing  the  free  axile  placenta.  399,  Ovary  of 
Scrophulariacese.  400,  Ovary  of  Tulip.  401,  Cross-section  of  ovary  of  Flax,  5-celled,  falsely 
10-celled.  402,  Ovary  of  Violet,  1-celled.  403,  Ovary  of  Fuchsia,  4-celled.  404,  Ovary  of  rock- 
rose,  1-celled,  5-carpelled.  405.  Gentianaceas,  2-valved,  1-celled. 

529.  A  FEW  PECULIAR  FORMS  of  the  style  and  stigma  are  worthy  of  note  in  our 
narrow  limits,  as  the  lateral  style  of  strawberry,  the  basilar  style  of  the  Labiatse 
and  Borrageworts,  the  branching  style  of  Emblica,  one  of  the  Euphorbiaceas ;  also, 

530.  THE  GLOBULAR  STIGMA  of  Mirabilis;    the  linear  stigma  of  Gyromia;  the 
feathery  stigma  of  grasses  ;  the  filiform  stigma  of  Indian  corn ;  the  lateral  stigma 
of  Aster ;  the  petaloid  stigmas  of  Iris  ;  the  hooded  stigma  of  violet  (371 — 379). 

531.  STIGMA  WANTING.    In  the  pine,  cedar,  and  the  Coniferas  generally,  both  the 
style  and  stigma  are  wanting,  and  the  ovary  is  represented  only  by  a  flat,  open, 
carpellary  scale  bearing  the  naked  ovules  at  its  base. 


THE   OVULES. 


532.  THEIR  NATURE.  Destined  to  become  seeds  in  the  fruit  ovules 
are  understood  to  be  altered  buds.  Their  development  from  the  mar- 
gins and  inner  surface  of  the  carpel  favors  this  view ;  for  the  ordinary 
leaves  of  Bryophyllum  and*  some  other  plants  do  habitually  produce 
buds  at  their  margin  or  on  their  upper  surface ;  and  in  the  mignonette 
ovules  themselves  have  been  seen  transformed  into  leaves. 


THE    OVULES. 


109 


415 


416 


417 


410 


406,  Pistil  of  Celosia,  the  pericarp  detached  showing  the  young  ovnles.  413,  Flower  of  Rhu- 
barb ;  pericarp  removed  showing  the  young  ovule.  407,  A  similar  ovule  (orthotropous)  of 
Polygon  nun.  403,  The  same,  full  grown  ;  foramen  at  top.  409,  Section  showing  its  two 
coats,  nucleus  and  sac.  410,  Anatropous  ovule,  as  of  columbine;  a,  foramen.  411,  Section  of 
same.  412,  Campylotropous  ovule,  as  of  Bean ;  a,  foramen.  414,  Section  of  a  cherry,  ovule 
anatropous,  suspended.  415,  Section  of  carpel  of  Banunculus;  ovule  ascending.  416,  Senecio ; 
ovule  erect.  417,  Hippuris;  ovule  pendulous. 

533.  THE  NUMBER  of  ovules  in  the  ovary  varies  from  one  to  hun- 
dreds.   Thus  in  buttercups,  Composite  and  grasses  the  ovule  is  solitary; 
in  Umbeliferse  it  is  also  solitary  in  each  of  the  two  carpels ;  in  the  Pea 
Order  they  are  definite,  being  but  few  ;  in  Mullein,  Poppy,  indefinite^  o>), 
too  many  to  be  readily  counted. 

534.  THE  POSITION  of   the  ovule  in  the  cell  is  defined  by  certain 
terms  as  follows;  erect,  when  it  grows  upwards  from  the  base  of  the 
cell,  as  in  Composite  ;  ascending,  when  it  turns  upwards  from  its  point 
of  lateral  attachment;  horizontal,  when  neither  turning  upwards  nor 
downwards ;  pendulous,  when  turned  downwards,  and  suspended,  when 
growing  directly  downwards  from  the  top  of  the  cell,  as  in  birch.  (315, 
316,  317,  319). 

535.  THE  OVULE  AT  THE  TIME   OF  FLOWERING  is  soft   and  pulpy, 
consisting  of  a  nucleus  within  two  coats,  supported  on  a  stalk.     The 
stalk  is  called  funiculus  ;  the  point  of  its  juncture  with  the  base  of  the 
nucleus  is  the  chalaza.     The  nucleus  was  first  formed,  then  the   legmen 
or  inner  coat  grew  up  from  the  chalaza  and  covered  it,  and  lastly  the 
outer  coat,  the  testa,  invested  the  whole.     Both  coats  remain   open  at 
the  top  by  a  small  passage,  the  micropyle. 

536.  CHANGE  OF  POSITION.     In  most  cases  the  ovule,  in  the  course 
of  its  growth,  changes  position,  curving  over  in  various  degrees  upon  its 
lengthening  funiculus  or  upon  itself.     When  no  such  curvature  exists, 
and  it  stands  straight,  as  in  the  buckwheat  order,  it  is  orthotropous.  It  is 


110  THE    FRUIT. 

537.  ANATROPOUS  when  completely  inverted.     In  this  state  a  por- 
tion of  the  funiculus  adheres  to  the  testa,  forming  a  ridge  called  raphe, 
reaching  from  the  chalaza  to  the  hilum. 

538.  IT  is  CAMPYLOTROPOUS  when  curved  upon  itself.     In  this  state 
the  micropyle  is  brought  near  to  the  chalaza,  and  both  are  next  the 
placenta,  as  in  the  pinks  and  Cruciferse. 

539.  AMPHITROPOUS  when  half  inverted,  so  that  its  axis  becomes 
parallel  with  the  placenta,  as  in  mallow.     Here  the  raphe  exists,  but 
is  short.     In  campylotropous  there  is  no  raphc. 

The  ovule  contains  no  young  plant,  (embryo)  yet ;  but  a  cavity,  the 
embryo  sac,  is  already  provided  to  receive  it  just  within  the  upper  end 
of  the  nucleus. 

540.  THE  RELATIONS  OF  THE  OVULE  TO  THE  POLLEN  GRAIN  will  be  more  suit- 
ably discussed  hereafter  under  the  head  of  fertilization.     We  briefly  remark  here 
that  the  immediate  contact  of  the  two  is  brought  about  at  the  time  of  flowering  by 
special  arrangements ;  and  that,  as  the  undoubted  result  of  their  combined  action, 
the  embryo  soon  after  originates  in  the  embryo  sac. 


CHAPTER      XIII. 

THE    FRUIT. 

541.  ITS  ORIGIN.     After  having  imbibed  the  pollen  which  the  an-' 
thers  have  discharged,  the  pistil  or  its  ovary  continues  its  growth  and 
enlargement,  and  is  finally  matured  in  the  form  of  the  peculiar  fruit 
of  the  plant.      The  fruit  is,  therefore,  properly  speaking,   the  ovary 
brought  to  perfection. 

542.  STATE  OF  THE  OTHER  PARTS  IN  FRUIT.     The  other  organs  of  the  flower, 
having  accomplished  their  work,  the  fertilization  of  the  ovary,  soon  wither  and  fall 
away.     Some  of  them,  however,  often  persist,  to  protect  or  become  blended  with 
the  ripening  fruit.    Thus  the  tube  of  the  superior  calyx  (§  446)  always  blends  with 
the  ovary  in  fruit,  as  in  currant,  cucumber,  apple,  etc.     In  Conipositse  the  persistent 
limb  enlarges  into  the  pappus  of  the  fruit.     In  buttercups  the  fruit  is  beaked  with 
the  short  persistent  style.     In  Clematis,  Geum,  it  is  caudate  (tailed)  with  the  long, 
growing  style.     In  the  Potato  tribe,  Labiates,  and  many  others,  the  inferior  calyx 
continues  to  vegetate  like  leaves  until  the  fruit  ripens. 

543.  CONSOLIDATED  FRUIT.     In  some  cases  the  fruit,  so-called,  consists  of  the  re- 
ceptacle and  ovaries  blended,  as  in  blackberry,  strawberry.     Again,  in  mulberry, 
fig,  pine-apple,  the  whole  inflorescence  is  consolidated  into  the  matured  fruit. 

544.  A  RULE  AND  EXCEPTION.     As  a  rule,  the  structure  of  the  fruit 
agrees  essentially  with  that  of  the  ovary.     In  many  cases,  however,  the 
fruit  undergoes  such  changes  in  the  course  of  its  growth  from  the  ovary 
as  to  disguise  its  real  structure.     An  early  examination,  therefore,  is 
always  more  reliable  in  its  results  than  a  late  one. 


PERICARP. 


Ill 


545.  FOR  EXAMPLE.^  the  oak-acorn  is  a  fruit  with  but  one  cell  and  one  seed,  al- 
though its  ovary  had  three  cells  and  six  ovules  1  This  singular  change  is  due  to  the 
non-development  of  five  of  its  ovules,  while  the  sixth  grew  the  more  rapidly,  oblit- 
erated the  dissepiments  by  pressing  them  to  the  wall,  and 
filled  the  whole  space  itself.  Similar  changes  characterize 
the  chestnut,  hazelnut  and  that  whole  order.  The  ovary  of 


418 


419 


418,  Section  of  the  ovary  of  an  acorn,  3-celled,  6-ovuled.  420,  Section  of  ovary  of  Birch, 
2-celled,  2-ovuled.  419,  Vertical  section  of  the  same  in  fruit.  422.  Pericarp  of  Mignionette  open 
Koon  after  flowering.  421,  Naked  seed  of  Taxus  Canadensis,  surrounded,  not  covered  by  the 
fleshy  pericarp. 

the  birch  is  2 -celled,  2-ovuled ;  but  by  the  suppression  of  one  cell  with  its  ovule, 
the  fruit  becomes  1-celled  and  1 -seeded. 

546.  ON  THE  OTHER  HAND  the  cells  are  sometimes  multiplied  in  the  fruit  by  the 
formation  of  false  partitions.  Thus  the  pod  of  thorn-apple  (Datura)  becomes  4-celled 
from  a  2-celled  ovary,  and  the  longer  pods  of  some  leguminous  plants  have  cross- 
partitions  formed  between  the  seeds. 

426  427 


423  425  424  423 

Capsule,  427,  of  Scrophularia,  2-celled ;  423,  of  Datura  Stramonium  ;  425,  of  Iris ;  425,  show- 
ing its  mode  of  dehiscence  (loculicidal) ;  424,  of  Colchicum,  8-celled.  42S,  Eegraa,  ripe  fruit  of 
Geranium,  the  carpels  (cocci)  separating  from  the  axis  and  bending  upwards  on  the  elastic  styles. 


PERICARP. 


The  fruit  consists  of  the  pericarp  and  the  seed. 

547.  THE  PERICARP  (rrept^  around)  is  the  envelope  of  the  seeds,  con- 
sisting of  the  carpels  and  whatever  other  parts  they  may  be  combined 
with.  It  varies  greatly  in  texture  and  substance  when  mature,  being 


112  PERICARP. 

then  either  dry,  as  the  pea-pod,  or  succulent,  as  the  currant.  Dry  peri- 
carps are  membranous,  or  coriaceous  (leathery),  or  woody.  Succulent 
pericarps  may  be  either  wholly  so,  as  the  grape,  or  partly  so,  as  the 
peach  and  other  stone  fruit. 

548.  PERICARP  CLOSED  OR  OPEN.      With  very  few  exceptions  the 
pericarp  encloses  the  seed   while  maturing.      In    mignonette  (322), 
however,  it  opens,  exposing  the  seed,  immediately  after  flowering.   The 
membranous  pericarp  of  cohosh  (Leontice)  falls  away  early  leaving  the 
seed  to  ripen  naked..   In  yew  (Taxus)  the  seed  is  never  enclosed  wholly 
by  its  fleshy  pericarp ;  but  in  most  of  the  other  Coniferse,  the  close- 
pressed,  carpellary  scales  cover  the  seeds.     One-seeded  fruits,  like  those 
of  butter-cups,  etc.,  are  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  flaked  seeds. 

549.  DEHISCENCE.  The  fleshy  pericarp  is   always  indehiscent.     Its 
seeds  are  liberated  only  by  its  decay,  or  bursting  in  germination.     So 
also  in  many  cases  the  dry  pericarp,  as  the  acorn.  But  more  commonly 
the  dry  fruit,  when  arrived  at  maturity,  opens  in  some  way,  discharging 
its  seeds.     Such  fruits  are  dehiscent. 

550.  MODES.     Dehiscence  is  either  valvular,  porous,  or  circumscis- 
sile ;  valvular,  wrhen  the  pericarp  opens  vertically  along  the  sutures, 
forming  regular  parts  called  valves.     These  valves  may  separate  quite 
to  the  base,  or  only  at  the  top,  forming  teeth,  as  in  chickweed.     We 
notice  four  modes  of  valvular  dehiscence,  viz.  : 

1,  Sutural,  when  it  takes  place  at  the  sutures  of  any  1 -celled  peri- 
carp, as  columbine,  pea,  violet. 


\ 


429  480  431 

Dehiscence ;  429,  septicidal ;  430,  loculicidal ;  431,  septifragal. 

2,  Septicidal  (septum,  partition,  ccedo,  to   cut),  when  it  takes  place 
through  the  dissepiments  (which  are  double,  §  525).     The  carpels  thus 
separated  may  open  severally  by  sutures,  (Mallows),  or  remain  inde- 
hiscent, as  in  Vervain. 

3,  Loculicidal  (loculus,  a  cell,  ccedo,  to  cut),  when  each  carpel  opens 
at  its  dorsal  suture  directly  into  the  cell  (evening-primrose,  lily).     Here 
the  dissepiments  come  away  attached  to  the  middle  of  the  valves. 

4,  Septifragal    (septum,  and  frango,   to  break),  when   the   valves 
separate  from  the  dissepiments  which  remain  still  united  in  the  axis 
(Convolvulus). 


PERICARP. 


113 


551.  POROUS  dehiscence  is  exemplified  in  the  poppy,  where  the  seeds 
escape  by  orifices  near  the  top  of  the  fruit.     It  is  not  common. 

552.  CIRCUMSCISSILE  (circumscindo,  to  cut  around),  when  the  top 
of  the  ovary  opens  or  falls  off  like  a  lid,  as  in  Jeffersonia,  henbane, 
plantain. 

553.  CARPOPHORE.    Some  fruits,  as  the  Gerania  and  TJmbeliferae,  are 
furnished  with  a  carpophore,  that  is,  a  slender  column  from  the  recep- 
tacle, prolonged  through  the  axis  of  the  fruit,  supporting  the  carpels. 

554.  THE  MORPHOLOGY  of  the  pericarp  is  exceedingly  diversified,  but  it  will  suf- 
fice the  learner  at  first  to  acquaint  himself  with  the  leading  forms  only,  such  as  are 
indicated  in  the  following  synopsis  and  more  definitely  described  afterward. 

555.  The  following  is  a  synopsis  of  the  principal  forms  of  Pericarps. 

§  1.  FREE  FRUITS  (FORMED  BY  A  SINGLE  FLOWER). 

*  PERICARPS  INDEHISCENT, 

f  With  usually  but  one  seed,  and 
\  Uniform,  or  1-coated. 

1.  Separated  from  the  seed. 

2.  Inflated,  often  breaking  away. 

3.  Inseparable  from  the  seed. 

4.  Invested  with  a  cupule  (involucre). 

5.  Having  winged  appendages. 
Double  or  triple-coated,  fleshy  or  fibrous. 

6.  Three-coated.     Stone  cell  entire. 

7.  Two-coated.     Stone  cell  2-parted. 

8.  Drupes  aggregated. 
f  With  two  or  more  seeds, 

\  Immersed  in  a  fleshy  or  pulpy  mass. 

9.  Rind  membranous. 

10.  Rind  leathery,  separable. 

11.  Rind  hard,  crustaceous. 
Inclosed  in  distinct  cells. 


Achenium  (buttercups). 
Utricle  (pigweed). 
Caryopsis  (grasses). 
Grlans  (oak). 
Samara  (ash). 

Drupe  (cherry). 
Tryma  (walnut). 
Etaerio  (raspberry). 


*  PERICARPS  DEHISCENT. 

12.  Dehiscence  circumscissile.  seeds  o> . 
f  Dehiscence  valvular  or  porous ; 

\  Simple  or  1-carpeled, 

13.  Opening  by  the  ventral  suture. 

14.  Opening  by  both  sutures. 

15.  Legume  jointed. 
\  Compound  pericarps; 

16.  Placentas  parietal  with  two  cells. 

Silique  short. 

17.  Placentas  parietal  only  when  1 -celled. 


Berry  (gooseberry). 
Hesperidum  (orange). 
Pepo  (squash) 
Pome  (apple). 

Pyxis  (henbane). 


Follicle  (columbine). 
Legume  (pea). 
Loment  (Desmodiurn). 

Silique  (mustard). 
Silicle  (shepherd's  purse). 
Capsule  (flax). 


18.  Capsule  with  carpophore  and  elastic  styles.  Regma  (Geranium). 

§    2.    CONFLUENT    FRUITS   (FORMED   OF   AN  INFLORESCENCE). 

*  With  open  carpels  aggregated  into  a  cone.  Strobile  (pine). 

*  With  closed  carpels  aggregated  into  a  mass,  as  in  the  fig,  mulberry,  Osage-orange, 

pine-apple,  etc. 


114 


PERICARP. 


556.  THE  ACHENIUM  is  a  small,  dry,  indehiscent  pericarp,  free  from 
the  one  seed  which  it  contains,  and  tipped  with  the  regains  of  the 
style  (buttercups,  Lithospermum). 

557.  The  double  achenium  of  the  Umbeliferse,  supported  on  a  carpophore  is  called 
cremocarp.     The  2-carpeled  achenium  of  the  Compositas,  usually  crowned  with  a 
pappus,  is  called  cypsela. 

558.  THE  ACHENIA  ARE  OFTEN  MISTAKEN  for  seeds.     In  the  Labiatae  and  Bor- 
rageworts  they  are  associated  in  fours  (.372).    In  Geum,  Anemone,  etc.,  they  are 
collected  in  heads.     The  rich  pulp  of  the  strawberry  consists  wholly  of  the  over- 
grown receptacle,  wh\ch  bears  the  dry  achenia  on  its  surface.     (440). 

435 


432 


488 


440 


434  437 

432,  Achenia  of  Anemone  thalictroides.  433,  Cremocarp  of  Archangelica  officinalis,  its  halves 
(merocarps)  separated  and  suspended  on  the  carpophore.  43 1,  Cypsela  of  Thistle  with  its 
plumous  pappus.  435,  Utricle  of  Chenopodium  (pigweed).  436,  Caryopsis  of  Wheat  437. 
Samara  of  Elm.  438,  Glans  of  Beech.  439,  Drupe  of  Primus.  440,  Fruit  of  Fragaria  Indica,  a 
fleshy  torus  like  the  strawberry. 

559.  THE  UTRICLE  is  a  small,  thin,  pericarp  fitting  loosely  upon  its 
one  seed,  and  often  opening  transversely  to  discharge  it   (pigweed, 
prince's  feather). 

560.  CARYOPSIS,  the  grain  or  fruit  of  the  grasses,  is  a  thin,  dry,  1- 
seeded  pericarp,  inseparable-  from  the  seed. 

561.  SAMARA  ;  dry,  1-seeded,   indehiscent,  furnished  with   a   mem- 
branous wing  or  wings  (ash,  elm,  maple). 

562.  GLANS  OR  NUT  ;  hard,  dry,  indehiscent,  commonly  1-seeded  by 
suppression  (§  545),  and  invested  with  a  persistent  involucre  called  a 
cupule,  either  solitary  (acorn,  hazelnutj  or  several  together   (chestnut, 
beechnut). 

563.  DRUPE,  stone-fruit ;  a  3-coated,  1 -celled,  indehiscent  pericarp, 
exemplified  in  the  cherry,  peach.     The  outer  coat  (epidermis)  is  called 
the  epicarp,  the  inner  is  the  nucleus  or  endocarp,  hard  and  stony  ;  the 
intervening  pulp  or  fleshy  coat  is  the  sarcocarp  (aapt-,  flesh).     These 
coats  are  not  distinguishable  in  the  ovary. 


PERICARP.  115 

564.  TRYMA,  a  kind  of  dryish  drupe,  2-coated,  the  epicarp  fibro- 
fleshy  (butternut)  or  woody  (hickory),  the  nucleus  bony  -with  its  cell 
often  deeply  2-parted  (cocoa-nut). 

565.  ET^ERIO,  an  aggregate  fruit  consisting  of  numerous  little  drupes 
united  to  each  other  (raspberry)   or  to  the  fleshy  receptacle  (black- 
berry). 

566.  BERRY,   a  succulent,  thin-skinned  pericarp  holding  the  seeds 
loosely  imbedded  in  the  pulp  (currant,  grape). 

567.  HESPERIDUM,  a  succulent,  raany-carpeled  fruit,  the  rind  thick, 
leathery,  separable  from  the  pulpy  mass  within  (orange,  lemon). 

568.  PEPO,  an  indehiscent,  compound,  fleshy  fruit,  with  a  hardened 
rind  and  parietal  placentae  (melon). 

569.  THE  POME  is  a  fleshy,  indehiscent  pericarp  formed  of  the  per- 
manent calyx,  containing  several  cartilaginous  (apple)  or  bony  (haw) 
cells. 

570.  THE  PYXIS  is  a  many-seeded,  dry  fruit,  opening  like  a  lid  by 
a  circumcissile  dehiscence  (plantain,  henbane,  Jeffersonia).' 

571.  THE  FOLLICLE  is  a  single  carpel,  1-celled,  many-seeded,  opening 
at  the  ventral  suture*  (columbine,  larkspur,  silk-grass). 

572.  THE  LEGUME  or  pod  is  a  single  carpel,  1-celled,  usually  splitting 
into  two  valves,  but  bearing  its  l-oo  seeds  along  the  ventral  suture  only, 
in  one  row,  as  in  the  bean  and  all  the  Leguminosse.     It  is  sometimes 
curved  or  coiled  like  a  snail-shell  (Medicago). 

573.  THE  LOMENT  is  a  jointed  pod,  separating  across  into  1-seeded 
portions  (Desmodium). 

574.  SILIQUE.     This  is  also  a  pod,  linear,  2-carpeled,  2-valved,  2- 
celled  by  a  false  dissepiment  extended  between  the  two  parietal  pla- 
centae.    To  this  false  dissepiment  on  both   sides  of  both   edges  the 
seeds  are  attached  (mustard). 

575.  SILICLE.     This  is  a  short  silique,  nearly  as  wide  as  long  (shep- 
herd's purse).     The  silique  and  silicle  are  the  peculiar  fruit  of  all  the 
Cruciferae. 

576.  CAPSULE  (casket).     This  term  includes  all  other  forms  of  dry, 
dehiscent  fruits,  compound,  opening  by  as  many  valves  as  there  are 
carpels  (Iris),  or  by  twice  as  many  (chickweed),  or  by  pores  (poppy). 

577.  THE  REGMA  is  a  kind  of  capsule  like  that  of  the  Geranium, 
whose  dehiscent  carpels  separate  elastically  but  still  remain  attached 
to  the  carpophore. 

578.  STROBILE  OR  CONE  ;  an  aggregate  fruit  consisting  of  a  conical 
or  oval  mass  of  imbricated   scales,  each  an  open  carpel  (  ?   flower), 
bearing  seeds  on  its  inner  side  at  base,  i.  £.,  axillary  seeds  (pine  and  the 
Gymnosperms  generally). 

579.  THE  CONE  (SYNCARPIUM,  ovv,  together)  of  the  Magnolia  tribe 


116 


PERICARP. 


442 


449 


441 


446 


447 


445 


448  444  443 

Fruits.  441,  Etaerio  of  Eubus  strigosus  (Blackberry).  442,  Pepo ;  section  of  cucumber.  449, 
Berry,  Grape.  443,  Pome,  Cratsegus  (Haw).'  444,  Pyxis  of  Jeffersonia.  445,  Legume  of  Pea. 
446,  Loment  of  Desmodium.  447,  Silique  of  Sinapis.  448,  Silicle  o|  Capsella. 

is  a  mass  of  confluent,  closed  pericarps  on  a  lengthened  torus  (cucum- 
ber tree). 

580.  THE  FIG  (syconus)  is  an  aggregate  fruit,  consisting  of  numer- 
ous seed-like  pericarps  inclosed  within  a  hollow,  fleshy  receptacle  where 
the  flowers  were  attached. 

581.  OTHER  CONFLUENT  FRUITS  (SOROSIS)  consist  of  the  entire  in- 
florescence developed  into  a  mass  of  united  pericarps,  as  in  the  mul- 
berry, osage-orange,  pine-apple. 


451 


450 


462         449,  bis. 


449,  bis,  Strobile  of  Pinus.    450,  Tlie  Fig  (syconus).    451,  Sorosis  of  Mulberry.    452,  Hip  of  Eosa, 
achmia  nearly  inclosed  in  the  leathery  calyx  tube. 


THE    SEED. 


117 


CHAPTER    XIV. 


THE    SEED. 

582.  THE  SEED  is  the  perfected  ovule,  having  an  embryo  formed  with- 
in, which  is  the  rudiment  of  a  new  plant  similar  in  all  respects  to  the 
original.     The  seed  consists  of  a  nucleus  or  kernel  invested  with 

583.  THE  INTEGUMENTS  OR  COVERINGS.     The  outer  covering  is  the 
testa,  the  inner  the   tegmen,  as  in  the  ovule.     The  latter  is  thin  and 
delicate,  often  indistinguishable  from  the  testa. 


468 


453 


466 


456 


457        458 


459 


Seed  of  "Water-Lily  (Nymphsea),  enlarged  section ;  «?&.,  albumen  ;  a,  the  embryo  contained 
in  the  embryo-sac ;  8,  secundine  or  tegmen ;  p,  primine  or  testa  ;  r,  raphe  ,  or,  aril ;  m,  mi- 
cropyle  ;  /,  funiculus.  463,  Seed  of  Bean,  464,  Same,  one  cotyledon  with  the  leafy  embryo. 
461,  Seed  of  Apple.  462,  One  cotyledon  showing  the  raphe  and  embryo.  460,  Fruit  of  Mirabi  • 
lis ;  embryo  coiled  into  a  ring.  454,  Onion  ;  .embryo  coiled.  455,  Convolvulus  ;  leafy  embryo 
folded.  456,  Embryo  of  Cuscuta.  457,  Typha.  453,  Eanunculus.  459,  Hop. 

584.  THE  TESTA  is  either  membranous  (papery),  coriaceous  (leath- 
ery), crustaceous  (horny),  bony,  woody,  or  fleshy.     Its  surface  is  gen- 
erally smooth,  etc.  (118,  a). 

585.  THE  COMA  MUST  NOT  BE  CONFOUNDED  WITH  the  pappus,  which  is  a  modi- 
fication of  the  calyx:,  appended  to  the  pericarp,  and  not  to  the  seed,  as  in  the  ache- 
nia  of  the  thistle,  dandelion,  and  other  Compositae.     Its  intention  in  the  economy 
of  the  plant  cannot  be  mistaken,  serving  like  the  pappus  to  secure  the  dispersion  of 
the  seed,  while  incidently  as  it  were,  in  the  case  of  the  cotton-seed,  it  furnishes 
clothing  and  employment  to  a  large  portion  of  the  human  race. 

586.  THE  ARIL. is  an  occasional  appendage,  partially  or  wholly  in- 
vesting the  seed.     It  originates  after  fertilization,  at  or  near  the  hilum, 
where  the  seed  is  attached  to  its  stalk  (funiculus).     Fine  examples  are 
seen  in  the  gashed  covering  of  the  nutmeg,  called  mace,  and  in  the  scar- 
let coat  of  the  seed  of  staff-tree.     In  the  seed  of  Polygala,  etc.,  it  is  but 
a  small  scale,  entire  or  2 -cleft,  called  caruncle. 


118 


THE    SEED. 


58T.  THE  POSITION  OP  THE  SEED  in  the  pericarp  is, 
like  that  of  the  ovule,  erect,  ascending,  pendulous,  etc. 
(§  534).  Likewise  in  respect  to  its  inversions,  it  is  ortho- 
tropous,  andtropous,  ampliitropous,  and  campylotropous 
(§  536),  terms  already  denned.  The  anatropous  is  by 
far  the  most  common  condition. 

588.  THE  HILUM  is  the  scar  or  mark  left  in 
the  testa  of  the  seed  by  its  separation  from  the 
funiculus.      It    is    com- 
monly called  the  eye,  as 
in  the  bean.     In  ortho- 
tropous    and    campy  16- 
tropotfs  seeds,  the  hilum 
corresponds     with      the 
chalaza  (§535).  In  other 
((VV     conditions   it   does   not, 
465        464    463  461  460        463       and  the  raphe  (§537)  ex- 

460,  ArilofEuonymus.  461,  Aril  of  Nutmeg  (mace).  462,   tends    between     the    two 
Seed  of  Polygala,  embryo,  caruncle,  c,  (too  small.)   463,  Seed 
ofCatalpa.    464,  Seed  of  Willow.    465,  Seed  of  Cotton.  points,  as  in  the  ovules. 

589.  THE  SEED  KERNEL  MAY  CONSIST  OF  two  parts,  the  embryo  and 
albumen,  or  of  the  embryo  only.     In  the  former  case  the  seeds  are 
albuminous,  in  the  latter,  exalbuminous,  a  distinction  of  great  import- 
ance in  systematic  botany. 

590.  THE  ALBUMEN  is  a  starchy   or  farinaceous   substance   accom- 
panying the  embryo  and  serving  as  its  first  nourishment  in  germina- 
tion.    Its  qualities  are  wholesome  and  nutritious,  even  in  poisonous 
plants.     Its  quantity  when  compared  with  the  embryo  varies   in  every 
possible  degree ;  being  excessive  (Ranunculaceae),  or  about  equal  ( Vio- 
lacese),  or  scanty  (Convolvulaceae),  or  none  at  all   (Leguminosse).     In 
texture  it  is  mealy  in  wheat,  mucilaginous  in  mallows,  oily  in  Ricinus, 
horny  in  coffee,  ruminated  in  nutmeg  and  pawpaw,  ivory-like  in  the 
ivory-palm  (Phytelephas),  fibrous  in  cocoa-nut,  where  it  is  also  hollow, 
enclosing  the  milk. 

591.  THE  EMBRYO  is  an  organized  body,  the  rudiment  of  the  future 
plant,  consisting  of   root  (radicle),  stem-bud  (plumule],    and   leaves 
(cotyledons).     But  these  parts  are  sometimes  quite  undistinguishable 
until  germination,  as  in  the  Orchis  tribe. 

592.  THE  RADICLE  is  the  descending  part  of  the. embryo,  almost  al- 
ways directed  towards  the  micropyle,  the  true  axis  of  the  seed. 

593.  THE  PLUMULE  is  the  rudimentary  ascending  axis,  the  terminal 
bud,  located  at  the  base  of,  or  between 

594.  THE  COTYLEDONS.     These,  the  seed-lobes,  are  the  bulky,  fari- 
naceous part  of  the  embryo,  destined  to  form  the  first  or  seminal  leaves 


THE    SEED. 


119 


of  the  young  plant.  The  nutritive  matter  deposited  in  the  seed  for  the 
early  sustenance  of  the  germinating  embryo  is  found  more  abundant 
in  the  cotyledons  in  proportion  as  there  is  less  of  it  in  the  albumen, — 
often  wholly  in  the  albumen  (wheat),  again  all  absorbed  in  the  bulky 
cotyledons  (squash). 

595.  THE   NUMBER  OF  THE  COTYLEDONS  is  variable,  and   upon  this 
circumstance  is  founded  the  most  important  subdivision  of  the  Phseno- 
gamia,  or  Flowering-plants. 

596.  THE   MONOCOTYLEDONS  are  plants  bearing  seeds  with  one  coty- 
ledon, or  if  two  are  present,  one  is  minute  or  abortive.     Such  plants 
are  also  called   Endogens,  because  their  stems  grow  by  internal  accre- 
tions (§  716).     Such  are  the  grasses,  the  palms,  Liliaceae,  whose  leaves 
are  mostly  constructed  with  parallel  veins.  % 

597.  THE  DICOTYLEDONS   are  plants  bearing  seeds  with  two  cotyle- 
dons.    These  are  also  called  Exogens,  because  their  stems  grow  by  ex- 
ternal accretions,  including  the  Bean  tribe,  Melon  tribe,  all  our  forest 
trees,  etc.     These  are  also  distinguished  at  a  glance  by  the  structure  of 
their  leaves,  which  are  net-veined  (§  258). 

598.  MORE  THAN  TWO  COTYLEDONS.     The  Pine  and  Fir  have  seeds 
with  several  cotyledons,  while  the  dodder  is  almost  the  only  known 
example  of  an  embryo  with  no  cotyledon. 

467  463  469 


j 


466,  Dicotyledonous  (Bean).  467,  Monocotyledonous  (Wheat).  463,  Polycotyledonous  (Pine). 
469,  Acotyledonous  (zoospore  of  one  of  the  Confervae).  (;•,  ?*,  r,  radicle  ;  p,  />,  p,  plumule  ;  c,  c,  c, 
cotyledon ;  a,  albumen). 

599.  THE  POSITION  OF  THE  EMBRYO,  whether  with  or  without  albu- 
men, is  singularly  varied  and  interesting  to  study.  It  may  be  straight, 
as  in  cat-tail,  violet,  or  curved  in  various  degrees  (moon-seed,  pink),  or 
coiled  (hop),  or  rolled  (spice-bush),  or  bent  angularly  (buckwheat),  or 
folded  (Cruciferae).  In  the  last  case  three  modes  are  to  be  specially 
noticed.  1,  Incumbent,  when  the  cotyledons  fold  over  so  as  to  bring 
the  back  of  one  against  the  radicle  (shepherd's  purse)  ;  2,  accumbent, 
when  the  edges  touch  the  radicle  (Arabis). 


120  OFFICE   OF  THE    SEED. 

600.  THE  LEAFY  NATURE  of  the  cotyledons  is  often  distinctly  manifest  in  their 
form  and  structure,  as  in  Convolvulus  (455). 

A  few  plants,  as  the  onion,  orange,  Coniferse,  occasionally  have  two  or  even  sev- 
eral embryos  in  a  seed,  while  all  the  Cryptogamia  or  flowerless  plants  have  no 
embryo  at  all,  nor  even  seeds,  but  are  reproduced  from  spores,  bodies  analogous  to 
the  pollen  grains  of  flowering  plants  (469). 

OFFICE    OF    THE    SEED. 

,601.  ITS  NATURE  AND  USE.  After  the  embryo  has  reached  its 
wonted  growth  in  the  ripened  seed,  it  becomes  suddenly  inactive  and 
torpid,  yet  still  alive.  In  this  condition  it  is,  in  fact,  a  living  plant, 
safely  packed  and  sealed  up  for  transportation.  This  is  the  distinctive 
and  wonderful  naturp  of  the  seed. 

602.  LONGEVITY  OP  THE  SEED.  This  suspended  vitality  of  the  seed  may  endure 
for  years,  or  even,  in  some  species,  for  ages.  The  seeds  of  maize  and  rye  have 
been  known  to  grow  when  30  to  40  years  old;  kidney -beans  when  100;  the  rasp- 
berry after  1700  years  (Lindley),  and  kernels  of  wheat  found  in  a  mummy-case, 
and  therefore  3000  years  old,  were  a  few  years  ago  successfully  cultivated  in  GTer- 
many  and  England  (Schleiden).  Seeds  of  Mountain  Potentilla  (P.  tridentata)  were 
known  to  us  to  germinate  at  Meriden,  N.  H.,  after  a  slumber  of  60  years.  On  the 
other  hand  the  seeds  of  some  species  are  short-lived,  retaining  vitality  hardly  a 
year  (Coffee,  Magnolia). 

603.  IN    ORDER    THAT    SEEDS    MAY  LONG    RETAIN   THEIR  VITALITY  they 

must  be  kept  dry.  But  an  even  temperature  is  by  no  means  neces- 
sary, as  they  are  generally  able  to  resist  all  the  changes  of  our  climate 
from  many  degrees  below  zero  to  110°  above,  provided  no  moisture 
is  present. 

604.  THE  DISPERSION  OF  SEEDS  over  wide,  and  often  to  distant  regions  is  ef- 
fected by  special  agencies,  in  which  the  highest  intelligence  and  wisdom  are  clearly 
seen.      Some  seeds  made  buoyant  by  means  of  the  coma,  or  pappus,  already  men- 
tioned, are  wafted  afar  by  the  winds,  beyond  rivers,  lakes  and  seas ;  as  the  thistle, 
dandelion,  silkgrass. 

605.  SEEDS  ARE  ALSO  FURNISHED  WITH  WINGS  for  the  same  purpose.     Others 
are  provided  with  hooks  or  barbs,  by  which  they  lay  hold  of  men  and  animals,  and 
are  thus,  by  unwilling  agents,  scattered  far  and  wide  (burr-seed,  tick-seed). 

606.  OTHER  SEEDS,  destitute  of  all  such  appendages,  are  thrown  to  a  distance  by 
the  sudden  coiling  of  the  elastic  carpels  (touch-me-not).     The  squirting  cucumber 
becomes  distended  with  water  by  absorption,  and  at  length,  when  ripe,  bursts  an 
aperture  at  base  and  projects  the  mingled  seeds  and  water  with  amazing  force. 

607.  TRANSPORTATION.     Rivers,  streams,  and  ocean  currents  are  all  means  of 
transporting  seeds  from  country  to  country.     Thus  the  cocoa  and  the  cashew-nut 
and  the  seeds  of  mahogany  have  been  known  to  perform  long  voyages  without  in- 
jury to  their  vitality.     Squirrels  laying  up  their  winter  stores  in  the  earth,  birds 
migrating  from  clime  to  clime,  and  from  island  to  island,  in  like  manner  conspire  to 
effect  the  same  important  end. 


GERMINATION. 


121 


GERMINATION. 

608.  DEFINITION.  The  recommencement  of  growth  in  the  seed  is 
called  germination.  It  is  the  awakening  of  the  embryo  from  its  tor- 
por, and  the  beginning  of  development  in  its  parts  already  formed,  so 
as  to  become  a  plant  like  its  parent. 


471 


Germination  of  the  Beach-nut  470,  Cross-section,  'showing  the  folded  cotyledons.  471,  The 
radicle  only,  472,  The  ascending  axis,  above  c,  appears.  473,  The  cotyledons  expand  into  the 
primordial  leaves.  474,  The  first  true  leaves. 

609.  EXPERIMENT.     All  the  stages  of  this  interesting  process  mjty  be  conveni- 
ently observed,  at  any  season,  by  an  experiment.     Let  a  few  seeds,  as  of  flax, 
cotton,  wheat,  pea,  be  enveloped  in  a  lock  of  cotton  resting  upon  water  in  a  bulb- 
glass,  and  kept  constantly  at  a  proper  temperature.     Or,  in  spring,  the  garden  soil 
will  give  us  examples  of  all  kinds  everywhere. 

610.  THAT  THE  SEED  MAY  BEGIN  TO  GROW,  or  germinate,  it  is  first 
planted,  or,  at  least,  placed  in  contact  with  warm,  moist  soil.     Con- 
cerning the  proper  depth  of  the  planted  seed  agriculturalists  are  not 
agreed ;  but  nature  seems  to  indicate  that  no  covering  is  needed  beyond 
what  will  secure  the  requisite  moisture  and  shade. 

611.  THE    PROCESS    COMMENCED.      Thus  situated  the   integuments 
gradually  absorb  water,  soften  and  expand.      The   insoluble,  starchy 
matter  deposited  in  the  cotyledons,  or  in  the  albumen,  or  in  both,  un- 
dergoes a  certain  chemical  change,  becoming  sweet  and  soluble,  capable 
of  affording  nourishment  to  the  embryo  now  beginning  to  dilate  and 
develop  its  parts.     First  (in  the  winged  seed  of  the  maple,    scattered 
everywhere)  the  radicle  is  seen  protruding  from  the  micropyle,  or  the 


122 


GERMINATION. 


bursting  integument.    A  section  of  this  seed  would  now  show  the  folded 
embryo  impatient  of  confinement. 


47--) 


481 


479  478  477  476 

Germination  of  the  Maple.    475,  Samara  ;  section  showing  the  folded  cotyledons  at  c. 
476  —  180,  Progressive  stages. 

612.  THE  PROCESS  CONCLUDED.     Soon  the  radicle  has  extended,  and, 
pale  in  color,  has  hidden  itself  in  the  bosom  of  the  dark,  damp  earth. 

Now  the  cotyledons,  unfolding  and  grad- 
ually freed  from  the  seed  coats,  display 
themselves  at  length  as  a  pair  of  ^reen 
leaves.  Lastly  the  plumule  appears  in 
open  air,  a  green  bud,  already  showing 
a  lengthening  base,  its  first  internode, 
and  soon  a  pair  of  regular  leaves,  lobfed 
as  all  maple  leaves.  The  embryo  is 
now  an  embryo  no  longer,  but  a  grow- 
ing plant  descending  by  its  lower  axis, 
ascending  and  expanding  by  its  upper. 
613.  WHAT  BECOMES  OF  THE  COTYLEDONS. 
The  germination  of  the  tulip-tree,  oak,  pea, 
squash,  and  other  Dicotyledons  maybe  watched 
with  equal  advantage,  and  the  chief  difference 
observed  among  them  will  be  in  the  disposal 
of  the  cotyledons.  In  general,  these  arise  with 
the  ascending  axis,  as  in  the  maple  and  bean, 
and  act  as  the  first  pair  of  leaves  ;  but  some- 
times, when  they  are  very  thick,  as  in  the  pea, 
,  -^  oak  (6~9),  they  remain  as  first 

containing  the  cotyledon  ;  c,  plumule;  r,  placed  with  the  collum  (§  118),  neither  ascend- 

radicle  ;  s,  rootlets  (adventitious).  ing  nor  descending. 


Germination  of  Wheat;    «,  the  grain 


GERMINATION. 


123 


484 


614.  THE  GERMINATION  OF  MONOCOTYLEDONS,  as  seen  in  Indian  corn, 
wheat,  tulip,  is  in  this  wise.  •  The  cotyledon  is  not  disengaged  from  the 
seed,  but  remains  stationary  with 

it.  The  radicle  (r)  protrudes 
slightly  and  one  or  more  rootlets 
(s)  break  out  from  it  and  descend. 
The  plumule  (c)  shoots,  at  first 
parallel  with  the  cotyledon  along 
the  face  of  the  seed,  but  soon  as- 
cends, pushing  out  leaf  from  with- 
in leaf. 

615.  THE  CONDITIONS  REQUISITE 
for  germination  are  moisture,  air, 
and  warmth. 

616.  MOISTURE  is  necessary  for 
softening    the    integuments,    dis- 
solving the  nutritive  matter,  and 
facilitating  its  circulation.   This  is 
supplied  in  the  rain  and  dew. 

617.  AIR,  or  rather  its  oxygen, 
is  required  for  the  conversion  of 
the  starch  into  sugar — a  process 
always  depending  upon  oxydation. 

The  oxygen  absorbed  unites  with  a  portion  of  the  carbon  of  the  starch, 
producing  heat,  evolving  carbonic  acid,  and  thus  converting  the  re- 
mainder into  grape  sugar,  soluble  and  nutritive. 

618.  WARMTH  is  a  requisite  condition  of  all  vital  action,  as  well  in 
the  sprouting  of  a  seed  as  in  the  hatching  of  an  egg.     The  proper  de- 
gree of  temperature  for  our  own  climate  may  be  stated  at  60°  to  80°. 
Extremes  of  heat  and  of  cold  are  not,  however,  fatal  to  all  germination. 
In  one  of  the  Geysers  of  Iceland,  which  was  hot  enough  to  boil  an  egg 
in  four  minutes,  a  species  of  Chara  was  found  in  a  growing  and  fruitful 
state.     A  hot  spring  in  the  island  of  Luzon,  which  raises  the  thermo- 
meter to  187°,  has  plants  growing  in  it  and  on  its  borders.     Many 
species   of  plants  also  seem  well  adapted  to  growth  in  the  Arctic 
regions. 

619.  DARKNESS  is  favorable  to  germination,  as  proved  by  experiment,  but  not 
an  indispensable  condition.     Hence,  while  the  seed  should  be  covered  for  the  sake 
of  the  moisture  and  shade,  the  covering  should  be  very  thin  and  light,  for  the  sake 
of  a  free  access  to  air. 


483,  4S4,  Germination  of  Indian  Corn. 


124 


THE    CTYPTOGAMIA    OB    FLOWERLESS    PLANTS. 


620.  THE  CAUSE  OF  THE  DOWNWARD  TENDENCY  OF 
THE  ROOT  is  a  theme  of  much  discussion.  Some  have 
referred  it  to  the  principle  of  gravitation  j  others  to  its 
supposed  aversion  to  light  But  it  is  a  simple  and  satis- 
factory explanation  that  its  growth  or  cell  -development 
takes  place  most  readily  on  the  moist  side  of  its  growing 
point,  and  consequently  in  a  downward  direction,  so  long 
as  the  soil  in  contact  with  its  lower  surface  is  more  moist 
than  that  above.  Hence  also  the  well-known  tendency 
of  roots  toward  springs  and  water-courses. 


CHAPTEK    XV. 

THE  CKYPTOGAMIA  OB  FLOWERLESS  PLANTS. 

621.  DISTINCTION  OP  PARTS.  In  the  lowest 
of  the  Cryptogainic  tribes  the  organs  of  vege- 
tation and  of  reproduction  are  the  same.  Each 
cell  in  the  structure  grows,  nourishes,  multiplies. 

485,  A  Tree  Fern  (of  the  Island  Highe^  ™  ^  SCale  W6  find  a  gradual    Specializa- 

of  Java),  40  feet  in  height,    tion  ot  organs,  and  in  the  higher  tribes,  as  in 

A    Fern,     Polypodium 
vulgare.     4S6,    Its  frond. 
487,  Lobe  of  the  frond  en- 
larged, showing  the   sori, 
4SS,  One  of  the  sori  (mag- 
nified) consisting  of  many 
sporangi.    489,  One  spor- 
ange    (further    magnified) 
bursting  and    discharging 
the  spores.     490,  A  spore. 
491,  .Spores   beginning  to 
germinate  ;    and  492,  493, 
producing  the  prothallics 
with   rootlets.     At  a  ap- 
pear the   antheridia  and 
at  5  the  archegones  on  the 
surface  of  the  prothallus. 
494,    Antheridium.      495, 
One  of  its  cells.    496,  The 
same  burst ;  and  497,  the 
spermatozokJ         escaped. 
These     float    about,    and 
some   of  them  at  length 
enter,  498,  the  archegone, 
fertilizing,    and  at  length 
producing,  499,  the  young 
Fern.    500,   Sorns  of  As- 
pidium  marginale,  covered 
with  the  indusium.    501, 
501  Same,  side  view. 


THE    CRYPTOGAMIA    OR    FLOWERLESS    PLANTS. 


125 


505 


the  Phaenogamia,  one  portion  is  devoted  to  the  preservation  of  the  in- 
dividual, the  other  to  the  preservation  of  the  species ;  in  other  words, 
the  organs  of  vegetation  and  of  reproduction  become  separate  and  dis- 
tinct. 

622.  DISTINGUISHED  FROM  PHAENOGAMIA.     But  the  reproductive  or- 
gans, although  distinct  from  the  nutritive,  are  never  seen  combined  into 
flowers,  nor  producing  seeds  marked  by  the  presence  of  an  embryo. 
Hence  in  the  scale  of  rank  the  cryptogams  are  inferior  to  the  flowering 
plants  and  easily  distinguished  from  them. 

623.  VEGETATIVE  ORGANS. 
Again   in   the   lower   tribes, 
viz.,  the  seaweeds,  Fungi  and 
Lichens,  there  is  no  distinc- 
tion of  root,  stem  and  leaves  ; 
but  the  entire    plant   grows 
into  an  expansion  of  substance 
more  or  less  uniform  and  in- 
definite, called  a  thallus.  But 
the  higher  Hepaticae,  mosses, 
club-mosseSjEquisitaceae,  ferns 
and  marsileads,  possess  stems, 
roots    and    leaves    like    the 
Phaenogamia. 


502         503  504  506 

502,  Equisetum  arvense.    503,  E.  sylvaticum. 


Section  of  the  spike.    505,  A  sporange. 
with  its  elators  coiled. 


504. 
506,  A  spore 


Ml 


507,  Lycopodium   dendroideum.     508, 
single  spike.    509,  a  scale  with  its  sporange 
bursting.    510,  Spores. 


624.  CLASSES.      The  tribe    last 
mentioned  are  embraced  in  the  class 
Acrogens,  so  named  by  Lindley  from 
their  manner  of  growth  (anpov,  point 
or  summit),  lengthening  into  an  axis. 
The   remaining    three    tribes    first 
named  above  constitute  the  lowest 
class  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  called 
Thallogens,  and  named  from  their 
manner  of  growth. 

625.  THE  STEMS  OF  THE   MARSI- 
LEADS and  ferns  are  mostly  rhizomes, 
but  in  tropical  countries  some  species 
of  the  latter   arise   on   firm   aerial 
trunks  like  palms.    The  club-mosses 
have  slender,  woody  stems  much  in- 
clined to  bifurcate.     Those  of  the 
Equisetaceae,  Characeae  are  jointed, 


126 


THE    CRYPTOGAMIA    OB   FLOWERLESS    PLANTS. 


511,  Chara  fcetida.  512, 
Portion  of  a  branch  ;  the 
two  reproductive  organs- 
a,  Globule;  b,  nucule. 


bearing  slender,  whorled,  leafless  branches.  The 
mosses  and  Hepaticse  have  filiform  stems  and 
branches,  erect  and  creeping.  Fern  leaves  and 
mushrooms  arise  on  stipes. 

626.  LEAVES.  The  ferns  are  characterized  by 
their  great  development  of  leaves  called  fronds. 
They  are  rarely  simple,  often  pinnatifid,  or  pin- 
nate, simply,  doubly  or  triply.  Their  venation  is 
fork-veined  and  their  vernation  circinate.  The 
leaves  of  the  mosses  and  Hepaticai  are  veinless 
and  delicate,  mostly  ovate  and  entire,  numerously 
covering  the  axis.  Those  of  the  latter  are  often 
garnished  with  stipule-like  processes  called  am- 
phigdtstria. 

627.  TIIALLUS.     The  vegetative  system  of  the  Thallogens  consists 
either  of  delicate  filaments  or  of  flattened  membranes,  varying  in  color 
through  every  shade  and  hue.     In  Marchantia,  lichens,  and  seaweeds  it 
is  green,  olive  or  red,  and  called  520 

thallus.  It  may  resemble  a  leaf 
or  a  stem,  but  its  functions  are 
still  the  same.  In  size  it  varies 
from  the  microscopic  Confervse 
to  the  gigantic  seawrack,  a  fur- 
long in  length.  Its  structure  is 
purely  cellular  and  uniform,  or, 
as  in  Marchantia,  in  layers. 

628.  MYCELIUM  or  spawn  is 
the   vegetative    system  of    the 
Fungi,  distinguished  from  thalli 
by  its  want  of  coloring  matter 
in    its    cells.     It    consists    of 
meshes   of  white    or   colorless 
filaments,  branching  and  anas- 
tamosing    to    form    entangled 
masses  pervading  the  substance 
in  which  the  Fungus  grows.    It 

is  far  less  conspicuous  than  the  fructification  (toad-stool,  etc.)  which 
ultimately  arises  from  it. 

629.  THE  REPRODUCTIVE  ORGANS  of  the  Cryptogamia  are  the  anthe- 
ridia  and  archegonia ;  and  by  their  reaction  spores  in  various  spore- 
vessels  are  produced.     They  have  been  detected  in  nearly  all  the  cryp- 
togamic  tribes,  and  are  supposed  to  represent  the  stamens  and  pistils 


513 
514,  Sporange  with 


513  522  517  516 
Mosses.  513,  Polytrichiuin. 
calyptra,  without  calyptra.  515,  Sporanore  (en- 
larged) with  the  operculum  at  top.  516,  Mniutn, 
517,  Sporange.  518,  Bartramia.  519,  Sporange 
with  calyptra.  520,  Same  mature,  open.  521,  Pe- 
ristomo.  with  its  teeth.  522,  Antheridium  and 
paraphases  (a  flower)  of  Polytnchium. 


THE    CRYPTO GAMIA    OR    FLOWERLESS    PLANTS. 

525 


127 


Hepaticse.  523,  Marchantia,  sterile  plant  524—5,  Fertile  plant.  526,  Vertical  section  of 
the  fertil-receptacle ;  527,  of  a  perianth,  showing  the  sporange  bursting.  523,  One  of  the  elators 
with  four  spores.  529,  Portion  of  it  highly  magnified. 

543  544 

of  the  flowering  plants.  In  the  mosses,  liver- 
worts, etc.,  they  appear  only  on  the  full-grown 
plant ;  in  the  ferns,  Equisetaceae,  etc.,  they  ap- 
pear only  on  the  prothallus,  the  earliest  growth 
of  the  spore,  and  here  the  archegone  gives  birth 
to  an  embryo,  whence  at  length  the  true  fern 
arises,  while  the  prothallus  dies  away. 

630.  SPORES.  These 
are  the  true  reproductive 
germinating  bodies  of  the 
Cryptogams.  They  con- 
sist each  of  a  single  cell, 
often  exceedingly  minute, 
and  produced  in  immense 

numbers.     The    cell -wall      ^^fiiir^     it-^irM 
of  the  spore  may  be  sim-  -j         ^°^3w 

pie  (Botrytis)  or  double, 
as  if  a  cell  within  a  cell 
(ferns).  But  the  spores  Fung.  ^  Agaricns  (Mushroom)  in  various  sta?es .  ^ 

are         often         apparently  tearing  open  the  volva ;  ft,  annulus,  the  remains  of  the  veil 


540 


double    or    2-celled    (lich-  <6>;  C'PileUS;  Welium-    »»,  Portion  of  the  gills.  539, 
v  Basulia  and  spores  from  the  same  (magn.  400  aiam.).    540, 

ens),  Or  4-Celled,  or  6,  8,  Cyathus;  541,  Section.  542,  One  of  the  conceptacles.  543, 
Or  many-Celled.  These  Penicilium  (mildew).  544,  Mucor;  a,  mycelium. 

compound  spores  are  in  fact  spore-vessels  inclosing  several  spores  yet 
immature,  and  called  sporidia  or  theca-spores.  The  spores  or  sporidia 
are  often  inclosed  in  still  larger  cells  called  the  sac. 

o 

631.  ENDOSPORES  AND  EXOSPORES.     Spores  are  developed  either  in 
the  interior  of  the  parent  cell  or  on  the  outside  of  it,  and  hence  the  di- 


128 


THE    CRYPTO GAMIA    OR    FLOWERLESS    PLANTS. 


645  547  546  549  550         a 

Seaweeds  (Algre).  545,  Yaucheria  forming  and  dischargin?  its 
sporea  (a)  at  the  extremities.  546,  Fucus;  a,  air-vessel;  Z>,  fruit, 
a  mass  of  conceptacles.  547,  Transverse  section  of  a  conceptacle. 
548,  A  spore  with  paraphases.  549,  Hydrogastrum,  consisting  of  a 
single  cell.  550,  Spirogyrae  (Frogspittle)  one  of  the  Confervas ;  a, 
two  threads  (thalli)  conjugated,  *.  e.,  united  by  tubes. 

such  sporiferous  tissues  existing  in 
spots  of  definite  form,  constitute  the 
apothecia  when  flat,  receptacles  when 
concave,  and  conceptacles  when  hol- 
low. 

632.  THE  THECLE  OR  SPORANGIA  of 
ferns  and  mosses  consist  of  tissues 
rather  than  of  single  cells,  and  contain 


division  of  the  Cryp- 
togams into  the  En- 
pores  and  the 
Exospores.  In  the 
latter  case  the  pa- 
rent-cells are  called 
basidia,  and  many 
such  united,  as  in 
the  lichens  and 
mushrooms,  form  a 
tissue  called  hyme- 
nium.  In  lichens 


551,  Frustules  of  a  Diatomaceous  Alga 
(Diatoma  marinum)  separating  from  each 
other. 


530 


686 


536       533 


534 


532 


Lichens,  530,  Cladonia ;  the  minute  thallus  at  the  base  of  the  podetia,  cup-like  above,  bearing 
scarlet  conceptacles.  531,  Usnea.  532,  Sticta.  533,  Parmelia.  534,  Eeceptacle,  vertical  sec- 
tion. 535,  A  portion  (highly  magnified)  with  thecae  and  paraphases.  536,  A  spore  (double). 

numerous  spores.  In  ferns  they  grow  on  the  back  of  the  fronds  in 
little  clusters  called  sori.  When  mature,  the  sporange  is  torn  open  by 
the  contraction  of  an  elastic  ring  which  surrounds  it.  In  the  mosses 
the  sporange  is  stalked,  solitary,  terminal,  and  opens  by  a  definite  num- 
ber of  teeth  called  the  peristome. 

633.  ZOOSPORES  AND  SPERMATOZOIDS  are  minute  bodies  endowed  with 
spontaneous  locomotion  in  water  by  means  of  vibratile  ciliae.  Zoospores 
of  ovate  form  proceed  from  the  vegetative  cells  of  the  Algae,  swim 
about  for  a  time,  then  settle  down  and  grow  into  new  plants.  Sperma- 
tozoids  are  mostly  filiform  bodies  with  several  cilise,  discharged  from  the 


THE    CRYPTOGAMIA   OR   FLOWERLESS    PLANTS. 


129 


antheridia  (as  pollen?)  and  actively  floating  until  they  reach  the  arche- 
gones,  or  perish. 

634.  ALTERNATE  GENERATION  is  a  phenomenon  distinctly  traced  in  many  of  the 
cryptogams.      Thus  the  mosses,  in  germinating,  first  produce  long,  greenish  fila- 
ments quite  analogous  to  the  Confervae  (frog's-spawn).    From  these,  at  length,  buds 
arise  and  grow  into  a  true  moss.     Ferns,  also,  and  Equisetacese,  first  from  the  spore 
exist  in  the  form  of  a  liverwort — a  small  green  thallus,  creeping  and  rooting  along 
the  ground.     Secondly,  upon  this  prothaEus  reproductive  organs  are  developed  and 
an  embryo,  whence  a  true  fern  arises.     Thus  the  plant  is  transiently,  as  it  were,  a 
liverwort,  permanently,  a  fe*i.     (§21—23.) 

635.  OTHER  MODES  OP  PROPAGATION  occur  in  these  plants,  as,  for  example,  by 
innovations,  sporules,  gonidia.    These  bodies  are  analogous  to  bulbs  and  bulblets 
in  the  flowering  plants,  originating  from  the  nutritive  organs,  and  capable  of  sepa- 
rating from  the  parent  and  growing  up  independent  plants. 


553  854  555  556  65T 

552,  Zoospore  of  one  of  the  Confervae  (Chaetophora).  553,  Phytozoon  of  Chara.  554,  Anthe- 
ridium  of  Fucus  containing  two  phytozoa.  555,  Zo5spore  of  Confervae  with  a  tuft  of  cilise.  556, 
Another  species  with  but  two  ciliae.  557  Zoospore  of  Vaucheria  with  cilia  all  around. 

9 


PART    SECOND, 

PHYSIOLOGICAL     BOTANY. 


CHAPTER  J. 

OF    THE     VEGETABLE    CELL. 

63  G.  REVELATIONS  OP  THE  MICROSCOPE.  We  have  now  completed  a  brief  sur- 
vey of  the  phenomena  of  visible  vegetation.  We  commenced  with  the  root  and 
now  the  consideration  of  the  seed  with  its  embryo  completes  the  circle  and  brings 
us  around  to  the  root  again.  We  have  studied  hitherto  superficially,  as  best  we 
were  able  by  the  unassisted  eye.  But  the  microscope  opens  to  us  a  new  world  in 
botany,  more  wonderful  and  fair,  if  possible,  than  that  which  we  have  already  sur- 
veyed. No  just  appreciation  of  microscopic  botany  can  be  obtained  from  drawings 
or  descriptions.  Here  the  microscope  itself  is  the  only  adequate  teacher. 

637.  NEXT  INQUIRIES.    We  have  seen  and  studied  the  general  organs  of  vegeta- 
tion and  their  metamorphoses ;  but  of  what  are  these  organs  made  ?     What  their 
structure  within  ?    What  their  office  and  use  in  the  life  and  growth  of  the  plant  ? 
These  inquiries  must  next  be  answered. 

638.  STRUCTURE  OF  PLANTS  CELLULAR.    All  forms  of  vegetable  structure,  how- 
ever numerous  and  diverse,  are  alike  composed  of  little  bladders,  called  vescicles  or 
cells.    We  can  often  discern  the  cells  in  some  structures  with  the  naked  eye,  as  in 
the  pith  of  elder,  pulp  of  snowberry,  and  especially  plain  in  the  pulp  of  orange. 
Other  structures,  which  appear  as  a  solid  mass  to  the  eye,  are  seen  at  once,  under 
the  lens,  to  consist  of  cells  also — even  the  most  solid  wood  or  the  stony  substance 
of  the  peach.     A  thin  cutting  (shaving)  from  the  rhizome  of  the  blood-root,  magni- 
fied 100  diameters,  appears  in  outline  (to  say  nothing  of  its  brilliant  coloring)  as  here 
sketched  (557).    Therefore 

639.  THE  CELL  is  the  elementary  organism  which  by  its  repetitions 
makes  up  the  mass  of  all  vegetation.     It  is  defined  as  a  closed  sac  com- 
posed of  membrane  containing  a  fluid. 

640.  THE  PRIMARY  FORM  OF  THE  CELL  is  spheroidal.     In  some  cases 
it  retains  this  form  during  its  existence,  but  generally,  in  growing,  it 
takes  new  and  various  forms,  which,  on  account  of  the  two  causes  which 
control  them,  may  be  classed  as  inherent  and  casual, 

641.  THE  INHERENT  FORMS  OF  THE  CELL,  or  those  which   depend 
upon  its  own  laws  of  growth,  may  be  referred  to  three  general  types  ; 


OF   THE    VEGETABLE    CELL. 


131 


(1)  spheroidal,  like  pollen  grains,  the  red  snow-plant,  the  cells  of  leaf- 
tissue,  etc.,  varying  to  oblong,  or  lobed,  or  stellate  ;  (2)  cylindrical,  or 
tube-form,  as  most  wood-cells  are ;  (3)  tabular  or  flattened,  as  the  cells 
of  the  epidermis. 

642.  THE  CASUAL  FORMS 
result  from  external  pres- 
sure, as  of  cells  crowding 
against  cells,  in  stems  or 
pith.     In  this  way  spher- 
oidal cells  may  become  cu- 
bical,    8-sided;     12-sided, 
etc  ;  tubiform   cells    pris- 
matic, and  tabular  cells  4- 
angled,  hexagonal,  etc.,  in 
outline  according   to   the 
original  pattern. 

643.  IN  MAGNITUDE  the  plant 
cell  varies  from  yiff  to  3^-5-  of 
an  inch  in  diameter;  the  more 

common  size  is  about  3^  inch.    557,  section  of  the  rhizome  of  Blood-root,    a,  a.  A  bundle 
The  cells  of  elder  pith  measure          of  wood-cells.    The  shaded  cells  contain  the  color, 
about  ^  inch ;  those  of  pa- 
renchyma (leaf-tissue)  about  ^ ;  consequently,  64,000,000  of  them  would  occupy 
only  one  cubic  inch.    The  cells  of  cork  are  computed  to  be  -p^  inch  in  diameter — 
1000  millions  to  a  cubic  inch. 

644.  Bur  THE  LENGTH  of  some  cells  is  much  more  considerable.     "Wood-cells 
measure  ^  inch ;  bark  cells,  as  flax,  hemp,  nearly  £  inch ;  the  cells  of  some  plant- 
hairs  an  inch  or  more. 

645.  THE  WALL  of  the  new  cell  consists  of  two  layers  ;  the  outer  one 
a  firm,  colorless  membrane,  made  of  cellulose,  the  inner  a  plastic,  gelat- 
inous layer  applied  to  the  outer,  and  chiefly  concerned  in  cell-life  and 
multiplication.     This  is  called  the  primordial  utricle. 

646.  IT  is  BEST  SEEN  WHEN  treated  with  a  weak  solution  of  nitric 
acid,  iodine,  or  alcohol.     It  thus  becomes  colored,  contracts,  and  lies 
loose  in  the  cell. 

647.  THE  CELL  WALL  is  EASILY  PERMEATED  by  fluids  flowing  in  and 
out.     It  must,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  porous ;  although  it  appears 
perfectly  entire  even  under  the  highest  magnifier. 

648.  A  SECONDARY  LAYER  is  subsequently  added  to  the  outer  layer, 
between  it  and  the  primordial  utricle,  as  if  tlo  strengthen  it.      This  new 
layer  is  seldom  entire,  but  perforated  and  cleft  in  a  great  variety  of 
patterns,  leaving  certain  points  or  parts   of  the  cell-wall  still    bare 
and  discernible  by  their  transparency.     Hence  tlje  following  varieties 
of  cells : — 


132 


OF    THE    VEGETABLE    CELL. 


649.  WOOD  CELLS,  which  are  finally  filled  tip  by  the  repetitions  of 
the  secondary  layers,  leaving  only  minute  points  of  the  original  cell-wall 
bare  and  transparent. 


558 


560  559  5C1 

Forms  of  cells.    560,  Wood-cells.    561,  Cellular  tissue  of  a  rootlet,  etc. 

650.  PITTED  CELLS,  a  variety  where  larger  transparent  points  appear, 
surrounded  by  2  or  3  rings  (pine  and  the  Coniferae  in  general). 

651.  SPIRAL  CELLS,  where  the  secondary  layer  consists  of  spiral  fibers 
or  bands.     There  maybe  a  single  fiber,   or  several  (2  to  20)  united 
into  a  band.     It  is  usually  elastic  and  may  be  drawn  out  and  uncoiled. 


564 


566 


562,  Polyhedral  cells  of  parenchyma  in  pith  of  Elder.  563,  Stellate  cells  in  pith  of  Eash. 
565,  Spherical  cells  in  Houseleek.  566,  Wood-cells  and  ducts  of  Oak.  564,  Wood-cells  of 
the  Flax-fiber. 

These  beautiful  cells  may  be  well  seen  in  a  shoot  of  elder,  in  the  petiole 
of  rhubarb,  Geranium,  strawberry.  In  the  two  latter,  if  gently  pulled 
asunder,  the  coiled  fibers  appear  to  the  naked  eye. 

652.  ANNULAR  CELLS,  when  there  are  numerous  rings  within,  instead 
of  a  spiral   coil,  as  in  the  stems  of  balsam  and  some  Cryptogamia. 

653.  SCALARIFORM    CELLS,  when  the  rings  seem  conjoined  by  bars 
crossing   between   them,  giving  an  appearance  compared  to  a  ladder 
(scald) ,  as  in   the  vine  and  ferns.     Porous  cells  with  the  secondary 
layers  full  of  perforations,  reticulated  cells,  as  if  a  net-work ;  and  many 
other  forms. 


OF    THE    VEGETABLE    CELL. 


133 


654.  CELLULOSE,  the  material  of  which  the  outer  cell-walls  and  other 
secondary  layers  are  made,  is  proved  by  a  chemical  analysis  to  consist 
of  three  simple  elements,  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  in  the  proportions 
of  €04  H20  O-20, — carbon  and  the  exact  elements  of  water.     'In  the 
material  of  the  primordial  utricle  nitrogen  is  added.     Out  of  these 
four  simple  elements  (C  H  0  N)  with  slight  additions  of  lime,  silex, 
and  a  few  other  earthy  matters,  God  is  able  to  produce  all  the  count- 
less varieties  of  plants  which  clothe  and  beautify  the  earth. 

655.  CONTENTS  OF  THE  CELL.    Some  cells  contain  air  only.    Others 
are  filled  with  solid  matter ;  but  the  greater  part  contain  both  fluids 
and  solids.     There  is  the  cytoblast,  a  globular  atom,  earliest  of  new 
cells ;    and  protoplasm,  the  nourishing  semi-fluid,  both  of   the  same 
material  as  the  primordial  utricle,  and  with  it,  and  the -fluid  cell-sap, 
ever  flowing,  acting,  combining,  transforming,  and  producing  either  new 
cells  or  products  like  the  following. 

656.  THE  COLORING  MATTER,  which  gives  to  fruits  and  flowers  their  bright  and 
varying  tints  of  yellow,  red,  and  blue,  is  generally  dissolved  in  the  cell-sap  which 
is  otherwise  colorless;  but 

573  577  576  575  574     573    572  571 

U-LJ 


567  568  569  570 

567,  Cells,  o,  of  the  pulp  of  Snow-berry,  showing  the  nucleus;  &,  of  the  parenchyma  of  the 
leaf  of  Pink,  showing  the  granules  of  chlorophylle.  56S,  Cell  of  a  Cactus,  soaked  in  Alcohol,  the 
primordial  utricle  separated  and  contracted.  569,  Cell  of  pleurenchyma  of  Pine,  dotted.  570, 
Sketch  to  illustrate  the  nature  of  those  dots ;  a.  dot  seen  in  front ;  6,  a  side  view  of  the  same. 
571,  Trachenchyma,  a  spiral  cell  from  the  gporange  of  Eqnisetum.  572,  Spiral  vessel  of  the 
Melon,  single  thread  ;  573,  of  the  Elder,  4  threads.  574,  Annular  duct,  distended  by  rings  in- 
stead of  a  coil.  575,  Scalariform  vessels,  from  Osmunda  (Fern).  576,  A  dotted  duct  from  Gym- 
nocladus  (Coffee-tree).  578.  Spiral  vessels  apparently  branched.  577,  Branching  spirals  in 
the  Gourd.  v 

657.  CHLOROPHYLLS,  the  green  coloring  matter  of  leaves,  consists  of 
green  corpuscles  floating  in  the  colorless  sap  or  attached  to  the  color- 
less wall.  In  the  indigo  plant  these  corpuscles  are  blue  and  constitute 
that  poisonous  drug. 


134 


THE   TISSUES. 


658.  THE  STARCH  of  the  plant  also  originates  here,  in  the  form  of 
little  striated  granules  of  the  same  composition  as  cellulose  (C24  H^ 
Oo0).  Some  20  such  granules,  appear  in  the  same  cell,  either  loosely 
or  compactly  filling  it.  Starch  is  nutritive  matter,  sealed  up  for  pre- 
servation and  future  use. 

5T9  588  584  585  582 


580  581  586 

Contents  of  cells.  579,  Cells  of  Potato  containing  starch  grains.  580,  Starch  grains  from  the 
potato ;  581,  from  the  E.  Indian  Arrow-root.  582,  Raphides,  acicular  crystals,  in  a  cell  of  Poly- 
anthes  tuberose.  583,  Crystals  in  a  cell  of  Cactus.  584,  Cells  from  the  pulp  of  Pear,  coated  in- 
ternally ;  a  longitudinal  section ;  585,  Transverse  section.  586,  Starch  granules  from  TV.  Indian 
Arrow-root. 

659.  GUM,  SUGAR,  SALTS,  acids,  alkalies,  poisons,  medicines,    whatever  is  pecu- 
liar in  the  properties  of  each  vegetable  substance,  may  also  be  held  in  solution  in 
the  cell-sap  and  invisible,  unless  forming 

660.  RAPHIDES,  little  bundles  of  crystals,  acicular  or  of  some  other  form,  seen  in 
the  cells  of  rhubarb,  Cactus,  Hyacinth. 

661.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OP  NEW  CELLS  in  the  plant  is  the  process    of  its  growth. 
This  is  accomplished  within  the  pre-existing  cells  and  by  the  agency  of  their  con- 
tents.    The  primordial  utricle  divides  itself  into  two  or  more  utricles,    by  septa 
growing  from  its  sides  until  they  meet.    These  then  acquire  the  cellulose  layer  out- 
side, the  cytoblast  inside,  at  the  expense  of  the  old  cell,  which  shortly  gives   place 
to  its  new  progeny.     Thus  cells  multiply,  and  by  millions  on  millions  build  up  the 
fabric  of  the  clant. 


CHAPTEK    II. 


THE   TISSUES. 


662.  ONE-CELLED  PLANTS.     The  cell,  as  heretofore  described,  is  en- 
dowed with  a  life  within  itself.     It  &an  imbibe  fluids,  nourish  itself,  and 
reproduce  others  like  itself.     It  may,  therefore,  and  actually  does  in 
some  cases,  exist  alone  as  a  plant !     Many  species  of  the    Confervoids 
.and  Diatomes  are  plants  consisting  of  a  single  cell — the  simplest  possi- 
ble form  of  vegetation. 

663,  PLANTS  MANY-CELLED.     With  a  few  such  exceptions,  vegetation 
consists  of  a  combination  of  cells  united  in  a  definite  manner  and  form. 


THE   TISSUES. 


135 


Such  combinations  are  called  tissues,  which  we  may  describe  under  four 
general  names  or  types  : 

I.  CELLULAR  TISSUE  (PARENCHYMA)  : 

II.  FIBROUS  TISSUE  (PLEURENCHYMA)  : 

III.  VASCULAR  "TISSUE,  (TKACHENCHYMA)  : 

IV.  LATICIFEROUS  TISSUE  (CIENCHYMA). 

664.  PARENCHYMA,  composed  of  spheroidal  cells,  is  the  most  com- 
mon form  of  tissue,  no  plant  being  without  it,  and  many,  especially  of 
the  lower  orders,  being  entirely  composed  of  it.     Numerous  varieties 
occur  according  to  the  forms  of  the  cells  and  their  closeness  of  contact, 
intermediate  between  the  following  extremes,  1,  when  there  are  copious 
intercellular  spaces,  the  cells  slightly  touching,  and  being  (a)  rounded, 
or  (b)  lobed,  or  (c)  stellate  ;  2,  when  the  cells  are  crowded,,  leaving  no 
intercellular  space  and  being  (d)  prismatic,  or  (e)  polyhedral,  or  (/)  ir- 
regular. 

665.  EXAMPLES  qf  these  tissues  are  found  (a)  in  the  pulp  of  fruits,  in  newly-formed 
pith,  and  in  all  young  growths ;  (6)  in  the  lower  stratum  of  leaf-tissue  ;  (c)  in   the 
pith  of  rushes  and  other  aquatic  plants;  (d)  in  the  herbaceous  stems  of  Monocoty- 
ledons ;  (e)  everywhere,  but  well  observed  in  full-formed  pith ;  (/)  abundant  in  all 
the  soft,  fleshy  parts  of  plants. 

666.  PLEURENCHYMA  is  composed  of  elongated  cells  cohering  by  their 
sides  in  such  a  way  that  end  overreaches  end,  forming  a  continuous  fibre. 
Two  varieties  are  noticed  (a)  ivood- 

fibre,  with  cells  of  moderate  length, 
remarkable  for  its  firmness,  the 
main  constituent  of  the  steins  and 
trunks  of  the  higher  plants;  (6) 
liber,  with  very  long  attenuated 
cells,  the  substance  of  the  inner 
layers  of  bark,  remarkable  for  its 
tenacity,  especially  in  flax,  hemp, 
linden. 

667.  THE  PITTED  CELLS  (§  650) 
constitute   a   singular   variety   of 
wood-fiber,  common  in  pines,  firs, 
etc.     That  mysterious  double  ring 
which  encircles   each   pit,  is  pro- 
jected, the  inner  by  the  pit  itself, 

which  is  an  aperture  in  the  secondary  layer,  the  outer  by  a  lens-shaped 
intercellular  cavity  right  opposite  outside.     (470). 

668.  TRACHENCHYMA  is  a  tissue  of  vessels  or  tubes  rather  than  cells. 
The  vessels  are  extended  lengthwise,  and  composed  each  of  a  row  of 
cells  joined  end  to  end,  and  fused  into  one  by  the  absorption  of  the 


5T9,  Longitudinal  section  of  Thuja  (Eed  Cedar), 
a,  Medullary  rays. 


136 


THE   TISSUES. 


contiguous  walls.  This  tissue  varies  according  to  the  character  of  the 
constituent  cells,  which  are  (a)  spiral,  or  (6)  annular,  or  (c)  sclariform, 
or  (d)  reticulated. 

669.  Such  cells,  with  their  tapering  ends,  form  vessels  with  oblique  joints.    When 
porous  cells  (653)  with  their  truncated  ends  unit*  they  form  right-jointed  vessels  re- 
sembling strings  of  beads,  called  dotted  or  vascular  ducts.     These  are  usually  quite 
large,  and  characteristic  of  the  woody  layers  of  all  exogenous  plants.     (470.) 

670.  THE  DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  OF  TRACHENCHYMA  are  assigned  to  different  re- 
gions and  offices,  (a)  to  the  earliest  formed  part  of  the  wood,  the  petioles  and  veins 
of  leaves,  petals  of  flowers,  etc. ;  (&)  to  similar  parts,  but  later  formed,  most  abundant 

in  ferns  and  Equisetaceie ;  (c)  in  the  woody 
bundles  of  the  Endogens  and  in  the  succu- 
lent parts  of  plants  in  general;  (d)  most 
abundant  in  ferns,  club-mosses. 

671.  CIENCHYMA  is  a  system  of 
milk-vessels — vessels  secreting  the  latex 
or  peculiar  juice  of  the  plant,  white, 
yellow,  red,  turbid,  containing  opium, 
gamboge,  caoutchouc,  resin,  etc.  It 
occurs  in  the  petioles  and  veins  ;  in  the 
parenchyma  of  roots,  in  the  liber  es- 
pecially ;  sometimes  simple,  generally 
branched  and  netted  in  a  complicated 
manner,  as  well  seen  in  the  poppy,  ce- 
landine, blood-root,  gum-elastic  tree, 
etc. 
These  vessels  are  probably  mere  open  spaces  between  the 

cells  at  first,  subsequently  acquiring  a  lining  membrane  which  never  exhibits  pores 

or  spiral  markings.     But  there  are  also  true 

673.  LJ^ERCELLULAR  PASSAGES  filled  with  air  and  admitting  its  free 
circulation  in  all  directions  through  the  parenchyma.     These  are  neces- 
sarily very  irregular,  and  they  communicate  with  the  external  air  through 
the  stomata.     (§678.) 

674.  IMPORT  OF  THE  CELL.     Thus  the  cell  appears  to  be  the  type  of 
every  form  of  tissue,  the  material  of  which  the  vegetable  fabric  is  built, 
and  the  laboratory  where  the  work  is  performed. 

675.  ELEVATION  IN  RANK  is  MARKED  BY  the  increasing  complication  of  the' tis- 
sues. The  basis  of  the  structure  of  all  plants  is  parenchyma.  In  the  lowest  tribes 
no  other  tissue  is  ever  added,  this  alone  performing  all  the  functions.  Higher  in  the 
scale,  as  in  mosses,  a  few  central  bundles  of  wood  tissue  are  added,  as  if  to  strengthen 
the  stem.  Still  higher,  as  in  ferns,  etc.,  we  begin  to  find  vessels  (trachenchyma)  of 
the  simpler  sort,  for  the  freer  circulation  of  the  fluids,  together  with  the  strengthening 
pleurenchyma.  Lastly,  in  the  highest  plants,  Phsenogamia,  the  true  spiral  vessels 
appear,  filled  with  air,  cienchyma  with  secretions,  and  all  the  tissues  in  their  appro- 
priate functions. 


581 

Vessels  of  Cienchyma  ;  530,  from  Dan- 
delion; 581,  from  the  Celandine. 

672.  THEIR  NATURE. 


THE    EPIDERMAL    SYSTEM. 


137 


CHAPTER    III. 


THE   EPIDERMAL   SYSTEM 

INCLUDES  the  external  covering  of  all  herbaceous  growths,  viz.,  the 
.epidermis,  stomata,  hairs,  glands,  cuticle,  etc.,  organs  which  in  older 
stems  give  place  to  bark. 

676.  THE  EPIDERMIS  (skin)  consists  of  a  layer  of  united,  empty  cells, 
mostly  tabular,  forming  a  superficial  membrane.  It  invests  all  plants 
higher  than  mosses,  and  all  parts  save  the  extremities,  the  stigma  and 
rootlets.  Its  office  is  to  check  evaporation. 


5S4  582         9 

5S2,  Cells  of  epidermis  with  a  stoma  from  leaf  of  Helleborus  fcetidas.    583,  Vertical  section 
of  a  stoma  of  Narcissus;  a,  cuticle.    584,  Epidermis  cells  with  stomata  of  Tradescantia  Vir- 

ginica. 

677.  EXAMPLE.    That  delicate  membrane  which  may  be  easily  stripped  off  from 
the  leaf  of  the  houseleek  or  the  garden  iris  is  the  epidermis.    It  is  transparent,  color- 
less, and  under  the  microscope  reveals  its  cellular  structure. 

678.  STOMATA.     The  epidermis  does  not  entirely  exclude  the  tissues 
beneath  it  from  the  external  air,  but  is  cleft  here  and  there  by  Httle 
chinks  called  stomata  (mouths).     Each  stoma  is  guarded  by  a  pair  of 
reniform  cells,  of  such  mechanism  (not  well  understood)  as  to  open  in 
a  moist  atmosphere  and  close  in  a  dry. 

679.  POSITION  OF  STOiiATA.     The  stomata  are  always  placed  over  and  communi- 
cate with  the  intercellular  passages.     They  are  found  only  on  the  green  surfaces  of 
parts  exposed  to  the  air,  most  abundant  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves.     Their 
numbers  are  immense.     On  the  leaf  of  garden  rhubarb  5,000  were  counted  in  the 
space  of  a  square  inch ;  in  the  garden  iris,  12,000 ;  in  the  pink,  36,000 ;  in  Hy- 
drangea, 160,000. 


138 


THE    EPIDERMAL    SYSTEM. 


585,  Cells  and  stomata  of  the  epidermis  of  Oxalis  violacea ;  and  586,  of  Convallaria  racemosa. 

680.  CUTICLE.     The  surface  of  the  epidermis  at  length  becomes  itself  coated  with 
a  delicate,  transparent  pellicle,  not  cellular,  called  the  cuticle.     It  varies  in  consis- 
tency, being  thicker  and  stronger  in  evergreen  and  succulent  plants.     It  seems  to 
be  merely  the  outer  cell  wall  of  the  epidermis  thickened  and  separated  from  the 
newly-formed  wall  beneath  it. 

681.  THE  HAIRS  which  clothe  the  epidermis  are  mere  expansions  of 
its  tissue.     They  may  each  consist  of  a  single  elongated  cell,  or  of  a 
row  of  cells.     They  may  also  be  simple,  or  branched,  or  stellate,  or 
otherwise  diversified. 

682.  GLANDS  are  cellular  structures  serving  to  elaborate  and  contain 
the  peculiar  secretions  of  the  plant,  such  as  aromatic  oils,  resins,  honey, 
poisons,  etc.     A  gland  may  be  merely  an  expanded  cell  at  the  summit 
of  a  hair,  or  at  its  base,  and  hence  called  a  glandular  hair  (Labiatse). 
Or  it  may  be  a  peculiar  cell  under  the  epidermis,  giving  to  the  organ  a 
punctate  appearance,  as  in  the  leaf  of  lemon.     Other  glands  are  com- 
pound and  either  external  (sundew),  or  internal  reservoirs  of  secretion 
(rind  of  orange). 

683.  STINGS  are  stiff-pointed,  1-celled  hairs  expanded  at  base  into  a 
gland  containing  poisonous  secretion.   An  elastic  ring  of  epidermal  cells 
presses  upon  the  gland  so  as  to  inject  the  poison  into  the  wound  made 
by  its  broken  point  (nettle). 

684.  PRICKLES    are  hardened  hairs  connected   with  the  epidermis 
alone,  thus  differing  from  spines,  which  have  a  deeper  origin.     Exam- 
ples in  the  rose. 


THE    LIGNEOUS    SYSTEM. 


139 


504 


537  583  589  590 

5S7,  Eootlet  of  Madder,  showing  cells  expanded  into  fibrillae.  588,  Glandular  hair  of  Fraxi- 
nella,  section.  539,  Hair  of  Bryonia,  of  several  cells.  590,  Hair  of  several  cells,  surmounted  by 
a  gland,  of  Antirrhinum  majus.  591,  Sting  of  Urtica  dioica.  592,  Jointed  hair  of  the  stamens  of 
Tradescantia.  593,  Stellate  hair  from  the  petiole  of  Nuphar  advena  (magnified  200  diameters, 
Henfrey).  594,  Branched  hair,  one  cell,  of  Arabis.  «• 


CHAPTER    IV. 

THE   LIGNEOUS    SYSTEM 

685.  INCLUDES  the  firm  structures  of  roots,  stems,  and  their  append- 
ages, summarily  called  the  wood. 

686.  STRUCTURE.     The  growing  rootlet  of  the  germinating  plant  exhibits  under 
a  microscope  a  nearly  uniform  mass  of  cellular  tissue.     The  cells  composing  it  are 
soft  and  delicate,  with  thin,  porous  walls  adapted  to  absorb  moisture,  which  it  has 
already  begun  to  do.     It  grows  by  the  accession  of  cell  to  cell  through  their  divi- 
sion and  enlargement  at  its  point,  or  rather  just  behind  the  advarice  layer  which 
constitutes  its  cap  (pileorhiza  §  725. 

687.  THE  EARLIEST  TISSUE.     The  same  structure  also  appears  in  the  expanding 
cotyledons  and  the  opening  bud  of  the  plumule.     At  this  early  stage,  therefore,  all 
plants  alike  in  all  their  parts  are  composed  of  simple  parenchyma.     Subsequent 
changes  in  structure  occur,  giving  to  each  tribe  its  several  peculiarities.     Still  the 
growing  points  of  the  axis,  both  ascending  and  descending,  advance  by  the  forma- 
tion of  the  same  tissue,  and  the  vessels,  if  formed  at  all,  follow  a  little  later. 

688.  THE  CHANGES.     The  rootlet  soon  becomes  a  root,  assumes  a  corky  layer  in- 
stead of  the  tender,  spongiform  epidermis,  and  ceases  to  absorb.     But  new  rootlets 
spring  from  the  radicle,  or  branch  from  the  axis,  which  in  their  turn  absorb,  harden, 
divide  and  subdivide ;  and  so  on  indefinitely. 

689.  THE  INCREASING  DEMAND  FOR  MOISTURE  is  THUS  MET  by  the  multiplica- 
tion of  these  root  ends,  which  have  been  called  the  spongekts.    The  absorbing  sur- 
face is  also  greatly  increased  by  the  hair-like  processes  of  the  epidermis ; — the 
nbrillae  (§  724)  which  multiply  generally  in  proportion  to  the  dryness  of*  the  soil. 

690.  THERE  ARE  FOUR  GENERAL  MODES  OF  GROWTH  and  structure, 
whereby  the  vegetable  kingdom  is  distinguished  into  as  many  great 
classes,  viz.: 


140  THE    LIGNEOUS    SYSTEM. 

THE    OUTSIDE-GROWERS    (ExOGENS), 
THE    INSIDE-GROWERS    (ENDOGENS), 

THE  POINT-GROWERS  (ACROGENS), 
THE  MASS-GROWERS  (THALLOGENS). 

691.  THE  EXOGENOUS  STRUCTURE.     A  cross  section  of  the  stem  or 
branch  of  any  dicotyledonous  plant  (mustard,  maple),  exhibits  zones  of 
different  structures,  which  are  distinguished  as  pith,  medullary  sheath, 
wood,  and  bark. 

692.  THE  PITH  occupies  the  central  part  of  the  stem.     It  consists  of 
parenchyma,  is  chiefly  abundant  in  herbaceous  plants  and  all  young 
stems.     When  new,  it  is  filled  with  fluids   for  the  nourishment  of  the 
buds  until  they  can  make  food  for  themselves.     As  the  plant  advances 
in  age,  the  pith  loses  its  vitality,  is  filled  with  air  only,  is  often  torn  into 
irregular  cavities,  or  disappears. 

693.  THE  MEDULLARY  SHEATH  immediately  surrounds  the  pith.     It 
is  a  thin,  delicate  tissue  consisting  of  spiral  vessels.     It  communicates 
with  every  bud,  and  sends  oft*  detachments  of  its  vessels  to  the  petioles 
and  veins  of  every  leaf.     Its  tubes  secrete  oxygen  from  carbonic  acid  or 
water  and  convey  it  to  the  leaves. 

694.  THE  WOOD  consists  of  pleurenchyma  and  ducts   (§  666)  ar- 
ranged more  or  less  distinctly  in  concentric  zones  or  layers.     The  first 
or  inner  layer,  together  with  the  medullary  sheath  and  pith,  is  the  pro- 
duct of  the  first  year.     One  new  layer  is  formed  each  successive  year, 
during  the  life  of  the  plant. 

695.  ANNUAL  CIRCLES.     The  ducts  are  usually  first  formed  and  lie  in  the  inner 
part  of  the  strata  next  the  center,  while  the  wood-fibers  are  produced  toward  tho 
end  of  the  season,  and  deposited  in  the  outer  part.     The  former  are  distinguished 
by  the  large  size  of  their  open  ends,  while  the  fibers  are  minute  and  compact.     This 
circumstance  renders  the  limits  of  each  layer  distinctly  perceptible  in  a    cross 
section,  and  their  number,  if  counted  at  the  base,  will  correctly  indicate   the  age 
of  the  tree. 

696.  EXCEPTIONS.     There  are  doubtless  some  exceptions  to  this  rule.     In  trop- 
ical countries,  where  there  is  no  distinction  of  seasons,  there  may  be  several  zoned 
deposited  annually,  or  on  the  other  hand,  several  or  all  the  annual  layers  may  be 
so  blended  by  the  uniform  mixture  of  the  ducts  with  the  wood-tissue  as  to  be  im- 
distinguishable.     The  layers  of  the  beet-root  are  certainly  not  annual     They  seem 
to  correspond  with  the  number  of  leaf  cycles  (§  228). 

697.  THE  ALBURNUM  AND  DURAMEN — the  sap-wood  and  heart-wood, 
are  well-known  distinctions  in  the  wood.     The  former,  named  from  al- 
bus,  white,  is  usually  of  a  light  color  and  softer  structure.     It  is  the 
living  part  of  the  wood  through  whose  vessels  mainly  the  sap  ascends. 

698.  How  FORMED.      The  inferior  layers  of  the  alburnum  gradually 
harden  by  the  deposition  of  solid  matter  in  their  vessels,  and  the  thicken- 
ing of  the  cell-walls,  until  fluids  can  no  longer  pass  through  them. 


THE    LIGNEOUS    SYSTEM. 


141 


Thus  the  duramen  (durus,  hard)  is  formed  of  a  firm  and  durable  text- 
ure, the  only  part  valued  as  timber.  Its  varying  colors  in  cherry,  wal- 
nut, rose-wood,  are  well-known. 


595 


595,  Cross-sections  of  an  exogenous  atem  (Elm),  of  2  years'  growth ;  1,  pith,  2,  3,  annual  layers 
of  wood,  next  the  cambium,  4,  bark ;  596,  and  endogenous  stem  (Sorghum  or  Millet),  where 
there  is  no  distinction  of  layers. 

G99.  THE  DURAMEN  is  OP  NO  ACCOUNT  IN  VEGETATION,  and  is  in  this  respect 
dead.  Hence  it  often  decays,  leaving  the  trunk  hollow,  and  the  tree  at  the  same 
time  as  flourishing  as  ever. 

700.  THE  BARK  succeeds  and  replaces  the  epidermis,  covering  and 
protecting  the  wood.     It  is  readily  distinguished  into  three  parts,  viz. : 

The  inner,  white  bark  (liber), 
The  middle,  green  bark  (cellular). 
The  outer,  brown  bark  (cortical). 

The  substance  of  all  these  is  parenchyma  and  arranged,  like  the 
wood,  in  layers. 

701.  THE  LIBER  or  white  bark  contains  scattered  bundles  of  pleuren- 
chyma  and  cienchyma  with  its  cellular  tissue.     Its  wood-cells  are  very 
long  (§  666),  called  bast-cells,  and  are  strengthened  with  secondary  de- 
posits until  quite  filled  up.     Hence  the  strength  and  toughness  of  flax 
and  hemp.    The  strong  material  of  "  Russian  matting"  is  from  the  liber 
of  the  linden-tree,  and  the  "  lace"  of  the  South  Seas  from  the  lace-bark 
tree.     The  liber  of  other  trees  is  not  remarkable  for  strength. 

702.  THE  CELLULAR  OR  GREEN  BARK  succeeds  to  the  liber.     Its  tissue 
resembles  that  of  the  leaf,  being  filled  with  sap  and  chlorophylle.     It 
grows  laterally  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  enlarging  circumference 
of  the  tree,  but  does  not  increase  in  thickness  after  the  first  few  years. 

703.  THE  CORTICAL  or  brown  bark.     Its  color  is  not  always  brown, 
being  rarely  white  (canoe  birch),  or  straw-color  (yellow  birch),  or  green- 
ish (striped  maple),  or  grayish  (beech,  magnolia).     Its  substance  is  al- 
ways cellular  tissue,  but  differing  widely  in  consistency  in  different 
species.     Its  new  layers  come  from  within,  formed  from  the  green  bark, 
while  its  older  are  sooner  or  later  cast  off. 


142 


THE    LIGNEOUS    SYSTEM. 


104  THE  CORTICAL  LAYERS  sometimes  accumulate  to  a  considerable  thickness 
(maple,  hickory,  oak),  but  are  finally  rent  and  furrowed  by  the  expanding  wood. 
In  the  cork  oak  (Quercus  suber)  they  attain  an  excessive  growth,  furnishing  that 
useful  substance,  cork.  In  birch  (Betula  papyracea)  these  layers  resemble  paper, 
long  abiding  by  their  elasticity  the  expansion  of  the  trunk. 

705.  THE  MEDULLARY  RAYS  (medulla,  pith)  are  those  fine  lines  which 
appear  in  a  cross-section  passing  like  radii  from  the  pith  to  the  bark, 
intersecting  the  wood  and  dividing  it  into  wedge-shaped  bundles  or 
sectors.  They  consist  of  firm  plates  of  parenchyma  (muriform  tissue, 
the  cell  resembling  brick-work)  belonging  to  the  same  system  with  the 
pith. 

706.  The  medullary  r.ays  are  no  less  frequent  in 
the  outer  layer  of  wood  than  in  the  inner.     Hence 
their  number  must  increase  .yearly,  and  a  new  set 
commence  with  each  successive  layer,  extending 
with  those  already  formed  through  the  subsequent 
layers  to  the  bark,  as  shown  in  the  diagram.  (595.) 

707.  THE    SILVER   GRAIN.     In  a  radial  section 
(597,  598)  the  medullary  rays  are  more  conspicuous 
as  shining  plates  of  a  satin-like  texture,  called  the 
silver-grain,  quite  showy  in  oak,  maple.     A  tangen- 
tial section  shows  their  ends  in  the  form  of  thin 


597,  Woo    of  Oak  ;  section  lon- 
gitudinal, s  lowing,  a,  medullary 


rays ;    &,   wood-cells  ; 
ducts. 


porous 


708.  THEY  SERVE  AS  BONDS  to  combine  into  one 
firm  body  the  successive  wood  layers,  and  as  chan- 
nels of  communication  to  and  from  the  bark  and 
heart-wood.     They  also  generate,  at  their  outer  ex- 
tremities, the  adventitious  buds. 

709.  THE  CAMBIUM  LAYER.     Between  the 
liber  and  the  wood  there  is  formed  in  the 
spring,  at  the  time  of  the  opening  of  the 

buds,  a  mucilaginous,  half-organized 
layer  of  matter.  Its  presence  loosens 
the  bark  and  renders  it  easily  peeled 
from  the  wood.  The  cambium  is  a 
sap  solution  of  the  starchy  deposits 
of  the  preceding  year,  now  rapidly 
being  organized  into  cells. 

710.    THIS   IS    THE    GENERATIVE   LAYER 

whence  spring  all  the  growths  of  the  lig- 
neous system.  From  this,  during  each 
growing  season,  two  layers  are  developed, 
one  of  liber  and  one  of  wood,  both  at  first 
a  cellular  mass,  but  the  cells  with  wonder- 
ful precision  transforming,  some  into  the 
slender  bast-cells  of  the  liber,  some  into 
the  dotted  ducts  and  fusiform  cells  of  the 

wood,  some  into  the  muriform  tissue  of  the      598,  Wood  of  Maple  ;  a  medullary  rays ; 

ducts ;  c,  wood-  colls. 


THE    LIGNEOUS    SYSTEM.  143 

medullary  rays.     Through  these  latter  the  quickening  influence  of  the  cambium 
pervades  both  wood  and  bark. 

711.  UNLIMITED  GROWTH  is  therefore  a  characteristic  of  the  exogen- 
ous stem :  for  the  yearly  increments  are  added  to  the  outside  of  the 
wood,  and  the  bark  is  capable  of  expansion  by  lateral  growth  to  any 
extent. 

712.  THE  PECULIAR  SECRETIONS  OF  THE  PLANT  are  generally  more 
abundantly  deposited  in  the  bark  than  in  the  other  parts.     Hence  the 
bark  is  more  generally  sought  for  its  medicinal  and  chemical  proper- 
ties. 

713.  THE  ENDOGENOUS  STRUCTURE.     In  the  cross-section  of  amono- 
cotyledonous  stem  (corn,  palm)  there  is  no  visible  distinction  of  bark, 
wood,  pith,  or  of  annual  layers  of  any  kind. 

714.  IT  is  COMPOSED  of  tissues  quite  similar  to  those  of  the  exogen- 
ous stem,  but  very  differently  arranged.     The  body  of  the  monocoty- 
ledonous  stem  consists  of  parenchyma,  within  which  tissue  numerous 
thread-like  bundles  of  woody  matter  are  imbedded. 

715.  THESE  BUNDLES  CONSIST  EACH  OF  one  or  more  dotted  ducts 
accompanied  by  spiral  vessels,  pleurenchyma,  and  often  cienchyma  also, 
variously  arranged  in  different  species. 

716.  THE  FORMATION  OF  THESE  BUNDLES  is  dependent  upon  the  leaves  from 
which  they  may  severally  be  traced  downwards,  first  tending  toward  the  interior 
of  the  stem.     Further  on  they  recurve  Outward  again,  and  finally  terminate  near 
the  surface,  there  interlacing  and  combining  with  their  fellows  and  forming  an 
excessively  hard  but  inseparable  rind  (false  bark). 

717.  CLEAVAGE  DIFFICULT.     From  this  entanglement  of  the  fibers  the  cleavage 
of  endogenous  stems  is  difficult  or  impossible.     In  jointed  stems  (culms)  this  entan- 
glement occurs  only  at  the  nodes,  (cane,  grasses). 

718:  THE  GROWTH  of  inonocotyledonous  stems  thus  takes  place  by 
the  addition  of  the  new  wood  bundles  to  the  interior  of  the  stem,  and 
hence  such  plants  are  called  Inside-growers  or  ENDOGENS. 

719.  PECULIAR  FORMS  of  the  caudex.     The  rind  of  endogenous  trees  is  capable 
of  only  a  limited  expansion.     This  limit  is  soonest  attained  at  the  base  of  the  stem 
long  before  the  upper  parts  cease  to  enlarge.     Consequently  such  trunks  are  often 
seen  of  equal  or  greater  diameter  at  the  summit  than  at  the  base :  so  the  palmetto, 
corr^  bamboo. 

720.  THE  ACROGENOUS  STRUCTURE  is  found  in  mosses,  ferns,  and  the 
other  higher  tribes  of  the  Gryptogamia.     The  stems  advance,  beneath 
or  above  the  ground,  full-formed,  growing  only  at  the  end,  hence  called 
Acrogens. 

721.  A  CROSS-SECTION  of  a  fern  stem  shows  a  body  of  parenchyma  strengthened 
by  an  outer  zone  of  fibro- vascular  bundles,  the  whole  invested  with  a  sort  of  bark. 
The  bundles  are  precisely  similar  to  those  found  in  the  petioles,  showing  that  the 
stem  is  the  aggregate  of  the  unaltered  leaf-bases.     (600.) 


600,  Section  of  an  Acrogenous  stem  of  Tree- 
Fern  (Cyathea),  showing  the  vascular  bundles 
imbedded  near  the  circumference  of  the  cel- 
lular mass. 


722.  THALLOGENS  are  the  lowest 
in  the  scale  of  rank,  having  no  true  axis 
and  no  other  tissue  than  parenchyma, 
which  grows  in  threads  or  in  mass  in 
all  directions.  The  apparent  stems 


599,  Various  kinds  of  vessels  in  a  wood- 
fiber  of  Bamboo  or  Kattan.  tf,  Cells  of  paren- 
chyma ;  6,  annular  cells ;  c,  spiral  vessels ; 
<?,  porous  duct ;  «,  wood-cells. 

(stipes),  if  any,  support  the  fructification  only  (sea- weeds,  lichens,  mushrooms,  puff- 
balls,  frog-spittle,  mildew). 

723.  THE  STRUCTURE  OP  ROOTS  presents  few  deviations  from  that  of  the  stems 
to  which  they  severally  belong,  being  exogenous  in  Exogens,  endogenous  in  En- 
dogens,  etc.  In  the  former  class  the  central  pith  disappears,  its  place  being  occu- 
pied mainly  by  vascular  ducts,  and  the  liber,  if  any,  has  no  bast -cells. 

601  602  724.   THE   PIBRILL^  and    pileor- 

hiza should,  however,  be  mentioned 
as  peculiar  in  the  structure  of  the 
root  The  former  are  produced  by 
millions,  clothing  the  delicate  epi- 
dermis of  the  young  rootlets  as  with 
cottony  down,  especially  in  light 
soils.  They  usually  consist  of  a 
single  cell  of  the  epidermis  extended 
as  seen  in  figure  601.  They  are  the 
true  absorbents,  the  mouths  of  the 
growing  plant. 

725.  THE  PILEORHIZA.  The  mi- 
croscope shows  that  the  extreme, 
advancing  point  of  the  delicate, -grow- 
ing fibers  is  not  thrust  naked  against 
the  opposing  soil,  but  is  covered 
601,  Extremity  of  the  rootlet  of  Maple,  with  with  a  cap  called  pileorhiza  (pileus, 
fibrillae  and  (s)  pileorhiza.  602,  Two  plants  of  a  cap,  rMza,  root),  which  consists  of 
Lemna  minor  (Duckmeat).  a,  Their  pileorhiza.  older,  hardened  cells,  behind  which 
are  formed  the  new  cells.  In  the  Duck-meat  the  pileorhiza  is  lengthened  into  a 
sheath. 

726.  THE  MANNER  OP  GROWTH  IN  THE  ROOT  is  not  like  that  of  stems,  by  the 
extension  of  parts  already  formed,  but  simply  by  the  addition  of  new  matter  at  the 


STRUCTURE    OF   LEAVES. 


145 


advancing  point.     This  accounts  for  the  wonderful  facility  with  which  it  penetrates 
the  soil  and  finds  its  way  uninjured  into  the  hardest  earth. 

727.  DICTYOGEXS.  In  those  few  Monocotyledons  which  bear  reticulated  leaves 
(Smilax,  Dioscorea),  the  Dictyogens  of  Dr.  Lindley,  the  roots  exhibit  a  structure  re- 
sembling that  of  exogenous  stems. 


STRUCTURE    OF    LEAVES. 

728.  NATURE  OF  THE  LEAF.     The  leaf  may 
be  regarded  as  an  expansion  of  the  two  outer 
integuments  of  the  bark,  or  of  the  green  bark 
and   the  epidermis,   expanded  into  a  broad, 
thin  surface  by  a  woody  framework  proceed- 
ing from  the  medullary  sheath  and  the  liber. 

729.  THE  FRAMEWORK  of  veins  is  therefore 
fibro-vascular,  abounding  in  spiral  vessels,  and 
strengthened  with  liber. 

730.  THE  PARENCHYMA  exists  in  two  strata 
more  or   less    distinct.      In  all  those  leaves 
which    are   ordinarily  horizontal  in  position, 
one  surface  being  upward  and  the  other  down- 
ward, these  two  layers  are  dissimilar:  but  in     603,  Section  of  a  stem  at  the  orf- 

.  /•      i     i        .         /•   •  x  i     •       gin  of  a  leaf  ;p,  cellular,  or  pith; 

leaves    With  a    vertical    lamina    (ms),    and    111    a,  vascular,  the  medullary  sheath 

phyllodia  (8  307)  the  two  layers  are  similar.      sendins  off  a  bundle  into  the 

leaf-stalk ;  d,  the  swelling  (pul- 

731.  THE  LAYERS  DESCRIBED.  The  superficial  layer  vinus)  just  be]0w  the  articula- 
of  empty  tabular  cells,  belongs  to  the  epidermis.  Next  tion  of  the  leaf-stalk  (I) ;  &,  the 
beneath  this,  in  the  surface  on  which  the  sun  shines,  axillary  bud. 
are  one  or  two  layers  of  oblong  cells  placed  perpendicularly  to  that  surface,  and 
more  compact  than  th^e  cells  beneath  them,  which  are  pervaded  by  intercellular 
passages  and  by  the  veins. 

732.  PLACE  OF  THE  STOMATA.    The  stomata  as  a  rule  belong  to  the 
shaded  side  of  the  leaf,  avoiding  the  sun's  direct  rays.     On  the  sunny 
side  there  are  few   comparatively  or  none.     In  the  submerged  leaves 
of  water  plants  the  epidermal  layer  is  hardly  distinguishable,  and  is 
wholly  destitute  of  stomata.     In  such  leaves  as  float  upon  water  (water 
lilies)  stomata  are  found  in  the  upper  surface  alone. 

733.  THE  CHLOROPHYLLE.     Within   all  the  vesicles  of  the  paren- 
chyma are  seen  adhering  to  the  walls  the  green  globules  of  chlyro- 
phylle,  which  give  color  to  the  leaf — dark  green  above,  where  it  is  more 
compact,  paler  beneath,  where  the  cells  are  more  loose  and  separate. 

734.  VESSELS  of  cienchyma  pervade   the   under-layer    of    paren- 
chyrm,  returning  the  elaborated  juices  through  the  petiole  into  the  cam- 
bium layer. 

10 


146 


VEGETATION. 


604,  Minute  portion  of  a  leaf  of  Viola  tricolor,  viewed 
in  perspective,  showing,  a,  cells  of  epidermis  above  ; 
b,  compact  parenchyma  of  the  upper  portion  of  the 
leaf;  c,  loose  parenchyma;  d,  epidermal-cells  of  the 
lower  surface  with  stomata,  one  cut  and  opening  into 
the  intercellular  passages.  (Magnified  100  diameters.) 


735.  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  BRACTS, 
sepals,  petals,  and  other  organs, 
which  are  but  modifications  of 
the  leaf,  hardly  requires  a  separ- 
ate notice.  The  same  kinds  of 
vessels  pervade  their  parenchyma, 
but  the  spiral  exist  in  a  larger 
proportion.  In  the  pistil,  the  fibro- 
vascular  bundles  may  be  traced 
to  the  placenta,  and  thence  into 
the  funiculua  and  raphe  of  the 
ovule.  In  the  more  delicate  or- 
gans chlorophylle  is  wanting,  and 
the  peculiar  coloring,  matter  of 
whatever  other  tint,  is  uniformly 
diffused  through  the  fluid  con- 
tents of  the  cells  of  parenchyma. 
The  depth  of  the  tint  depends  on 
the  number  of  cells  thus  colored. 


CHAPTER    V 


VEGETATION,   OR    THE   PHYSIOLOGY   OF   PLANT   LIFE. 

736.  NEXT  INQUIRIES.     We  have  now  briefly  surveyed  the  mechan- 
ism of  the  plant,  both  its  outward  forms  and  internal  structure.     We 
next  inquire  into  the  uses  of  all  this  wonderful  apparatus ;  what  the 
specific  office  which  each  part  performs  in  the  economy  of  the  plant  ? 
and  how  do  all  parts  cooperate  in  the  work  of  living«and  growing  ? 

737.  THIS  is  A  SUBJECT  OF  GREAT  EXTENT,  and  involves  many  inquiries  of  deep 
interest  both  in  science  and  art, — many  inquiries,  also,  which  have  never  been  an- 
swered.    Our  limits  confine  us  to  the  bare  statement  of  admitted  principles,  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  speculative  discussion. 

738.  WHAT  is  LIFE  ?     This  inquiry  meets  us  at  the  beginning — a 
problem  never  solved.     The  spontaneous  action  of  the  plant,  the  self- 
determined  shapes  which  it  assumes,  we  at  once  refer  to  this  principle, 
its  vitality ;  but  of  the  nature  of  this  principle  itself  we  can  only  say, 
Is  it  not  a  direct  emanation  from  the  Supreme  Will,  the  Fountain  of 
all  life  ? 

739.  VEGETATION   is   DOUBTLESS    THE    LOWEST   FORM  OF  LIFE.     It 
springs  directly  from  inorganic  or  mineral  matter,  and  is  the  first  step 
in  the  organization  of  mineral  matter.     Its  material  is,  therefore,  min- 
eral matter  rendered  organic  through  the  vital  force. 


VEGETATION,    OB   THE   PHYSIOLOGY.  OF    PLANT   LIFE.  147 

740.  THE  SUBORDINATION  OF  THE  VEGETABLE  to  the  animal  kingdom 
is  thus  manifest  in  its  being  fed  and  nourished  on  inorganic  matter.     It 
is  interposed  between  these  two  incompatible  extremes,  and  is  ordained 
to  transform  the  innutritions  mineral  into  the  proper  and  indispensable 
food  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

741.  PARASITIC  PLANTS  do  indeed  require  the  ready  organized  juices  of  other 
plants,  just  as  the  carnivora  among  animals  live  on  flesh.     Still  the  general  fact  re- 
mains, that  plants  alone  feed  on  inorganic  matter,  and  in .  turn  become  themselves 
the  food  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

742.  THE  PROCESS  OF  VEGETATTON  consists  of  imbibing  the  crude 
matters   of  the  earth   and  air,  transforming  into  sap,  assimilating  to 
plant  juice  (latex),  and  organizing  into  its  own  structure  according  to 
its  own  plan.     The  vital  phenomena  on  which  these  transformations  de- 
pend are  called  absortion,  circulation,  exhalation,  assimilation,  secretion, 
all  of  which  processes  take  place  in  the  individual  cell.     Therefore, 

743.  CELL-LIFE  is  an  epitome  of  the  life  of  the  whole  plant.     The  cell  is  never  a 
spontaneous  production;  it  is  the  offspring  of  a  pre-existing  cell.      So  with  the 
plant ;  it  is  always 'the  offspring  of  a  pre-existing  embryo  or  cell.     Nothing  but  a 
cell  can  produce  or  nourish  a  cell. 

744.  Two  KINDS  OF  ORGANIC  MATTER  make  up  the  cell.     The  first 
protoplasm  or  protein  (C^  H31  O12  N5),  the  material  of  the  primordial 
utricle  (§  645),  etc.,  containing  nitrogen;  2d,  cellulose,  (C12  H10  O10),  the 
material  of  the  outer  wall  or  crust,  etc.,  containing  no  nitrogen.     The 
former  more  nearly  resembles  animal  matter,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  vital 
force  and  chemical  action. 

745.  WHAT    THE    CELL    IM- 
BIBES.     Through    the    invisible  ^^ 
pores  of  its  walls  the  cell  imbibes  ^b^ 
the  fluid  in  which  its  food  is  dis-  -^ 
solved,  viz.,    sugar  or   dextrine,  US/ 
ammonia  or  some  other  nitrogen- 

»         605,  Protococns  viridis,  the     606,  Penicillum  glan- 
OUS  substance.      Such  a  fluid  may         Green  snow-plant.  cum,  the  Yeast -plant. 

be  the  flowing  sap  of  the  plant  or  any  similar  artificial  mixture  in  which 
the  cell  is  bathed,  as  (in  the  case  of  the  yeast  plant)  a  syrup  with  mu- 
cilage. 

746.  THE  CHEMICAL  CHANGES.     The  sugar  is  thus  brought  into  con- 
tact with  the  protoplasm  in  the  cell,  through  whose  action  it  is  decom- 
posed and  its  elements  transformed  into  cellulose  and   water.     Thus 
each  atom  of  (grape)  sugar  or  dextrine  becomes 

One  atom  of  cellulose,     C12  H10  Oi0 
and  two  atoms  of  water,        H2  O2 

C12  H12  Oi2= grape  sugar. 


148  FERTILIZATION. 

The  water  is  exhaled  with  the  rest ;  the  cellulose  is  retained  to  incrust 
a  new  cell  as  soon  as  the  primordial  utricle  shall  next  divide  itself  to 
form  one.  Or  it  may  be  deposited  as  starch  granules  for  future  use. 

747.  ACTION  OF  CHLOROPHYLLE.     In  the  cells  of  green  plants  the 
globules  of  chlorophylle  act  an  important  part.     Their  formation  de- 
pends upon  the  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid  (C02),  the  retention  of 
the  carbon,  and  the  exhalation  of  the  oxygen  under  the  stimulus  of  the 
light.     If  the  formation  of  cellulose  continue  beyond  the  present  need 
for  cell-formation,  the  excess  is  deposited  in  the  form  of  starch-granules 
inclosed  within  the  globules  of  chlorophylle,  one  in  each. 

748.  DESTINATION  OP  THE  STARCH  GRANULES.     When  the  starch  granules  are 
redissolved,  they  go  to  incrust  the  next  new  cell  or  to  form  a  secondary  layer  in  the 
old  cell ;  or  in  autumn  they  go  out  into  the  general  circulation  and  are  at  length 
stored  up  in  the  buds,  the  cambium,  the  roots,  ready  for  an  early  use  the  following 
spring, 

749.  THE  INCREASE  OF  THE  PROTOPLASM  from  the  decomposition  of 
the  ammonia  or  other  nitrogenous  compounds  present  is  a  more  in- 
tricate process,  but  no  less  evident,  and  when  in  excess,  this  also  is  de- 
posited in  minute  globules  of  gluten,  mucus,  legumine,  chiefly  in  seeds 
(wheat,  beans,  rice),  in  aid  of  germination. 

750.  THE  STARCH  AND  GLUTEN  DEPOSITS  of  the  wheat  kernel  are  about  sixty- 
eight  and  seventeen  per  cent.     The  former  is  found  in  the  interior  cells,  the  latter 
in  the  exterior,  adjoining  the  pericarp  or  bran.     In  "  flouring"  some  of  the  gluten 
adheres  to  the  bran,  and  some  constitutes  the  coarser  meal,  all  of  which  is  separated 
by  the  "  bolt."     Extra  flour  must,  therefore,  necessarily  be  deficient  in  gluten,  the 
only  element  of  the  wheat  which  adapts  it  to  the  formation  of  muscle.    A  great  error. 


FERTILIZATION. 

751.  CAPACITY  OF  THE  CELL.     Such  being  the  vital  energy  of  the 
cell,  it  is  easy  to  admit  the  possibility  of  either  its  solitary  existence  as 
a  plant  (Protococcus,  etc.),  or  of  its  associated  existence,  as  in  the  living 
tissue  of  most  plants. 

752.  Two  MODES  OF  CELL-GROWTH.     Now  all  plants,  without  excep- 
tion, do  actually  commence  existence  in  the  state  of  a  simple  cell.     But 
while  in  the  lower  plants  (Cryptogamia),  this  simple  cell,  the  plant- 
rudiment  is  at  once  discharged,  free  and  independent,  to  float  or  grow, 
in  the  Phenogamia  it  is  yet  a  while  protected  and  nourished  by  other 
cells, — the  cells  of  the  ovule. 

753.  A  DISTINCTION.     This  primitive  cell-plant,  after  acquiring  the 
requisite  means,  swells  and  divides  itself  into  two  or  more  new  cells. 
If  these  new  cells  cohere  into  a  tissue  assuming  a  definite  form,  as  in 


FERTILIZATION. 


149 


%    the  higher  plants,  the  process  is  called  growth  ;  but  if  they  separate, 
each  one  still  abiding  separate,  it  is  reproduction. 

754.  THE  EMBRYONIC  VESICLE  is  the  expressive  name   of  the  em- 
bryonic cell  of  the  Flowering  Plants.     It  has  its  birth  in  that  large  cell 
of  the  nucleus  of  the  ovule   (§  539)  called  the  embryo  sac,  and  is  in 
some  way  developed  from  the  cytoblast  (§  655).    In  appearance  it  may 
be  like  other  new  cells,  but  in  the  impulse  or  instinct  with  which  it  is 
endowed  it  is  immeasurably  different.       It  looks  not  to  the  mere  con- 
tinuation of  an  old  series,  but  is  the  projector  and  pioneer  of  a  new. 

755.  ITS  NEW  IMPULSE.     Before  it 
can  enter  upon  its  course  of  develop- 
ment so  different  from  the  destination 
of  common  cells,  it  must  somehow  be 
quickened  and  energized  with  an  im- 
pulse in  this  new  direction.     In  other 
words,  it  must  be  fertilized, — a  pro- 
cess dependent  on  the  pollen  grains 
(§  509). 

756.  THE  POLLEN   TUBE — rrs    COURSE. 
"When  the  pollen  falls  upon  the  stigma,  it 
imbibes  the  saccharine  moisture  there,  ex- 
pands, and  its  inner,  expansible  ccfat  of  pro- 
toplasm protrudes  through  the  aperture  (one 
or  more)  of  the  outer  crustaceous  coat,  in 
the  form  of  an  attenuated  tube.     This,  like 
a  radicle,  sinks  into  the  soft  tissues  of  the 
stigma  and  style,  reaches  the  ovary,  and 
there  meets  and  enters  the  micropyle  of  t" 
ovule. 

757.  ITS    CONTENTS,    HOW     DISCHARGED. 

At  this  juncture  the  ovule  has  so  turned  it- 
self, whether  orthotropous,  anatropous,  etc., 
as  to  present  the  micropyle  favorable  to  this 
process.  The  pollen  tube  makes  its  way 
finally  to  the  nucleus  and  penetrates  to  the 
embryo  sac.  Here  its  growth  ceases;  its 
point  is  applied  externally  to  the  sac,  some- 
times indents  it ;  but  (according  to  the  most 
accurate  observations),  does  not  penetrate 
it  During  this  contact  the  contents  of  the 
tube  pass  by  absorption  into  the  sac. 

758.  GROWTH  OP  THE  FERTILIZED  CELLS. 
Immediately  the  embryonic  globule,  thus, 
somehow  endowed  with  a  new  instinct,  now 


607,  Section  of  the  ovary  of  Polygonnm 
Pennsylvanicnm,  in  process  of  fertilization. 
(Magnified  20  diameters),  c,  Natural  size. 
TO,  One  of  the  stamens  having  discharged  its 
pollen.  t,  A  grain  of  pollen  and  its  tube. 
s,  Styles  and  stigmas,  o,  Ovary,  ovule,  em- 
bryo sac  containing  the  embryonic  globule. 
The  extremity  of  a  pollen  tube  is  seen  in 
contact  with  the  embryo  sac. 


150 


FERTILIZATION. 


608,  Growth  of  the  emtryo 


first  expands  into  a  proper  cell,  and  is  usually  attached 
to  the  wall  of  the  sac  near  the  micropyle.  It  then  di- 
vides itself  transversely,  becoming  two  cells ;  the  upper 
elongates  either  with  or  without  subdivision,  forming  a 
filament  (suspensor) ;  the  lower  cell  enlarges  by  subdi- 
vision, first  spherically,  and  afterwards  the  little  mass 
begins  to  take  form  according  to  the  species,  showing 
cotyledons,  plumule,  etc.,  until  fully  developed  into  the 
embryo. 

759.  SCHLEIDEN'S  VIEW.  Owing  to  the  ex- 
treme difficulty  of  observation  in  this  minute 
field,  different  views  of  this  process  have  been 
advanced.  That  of  Schleiden  should  not  be 
overlooked.  He  maintains  that  the  end  of  the 
pollen  tube  actually  penetrates  the  sac  and  itself 
becomes  the  embryonic  cell.  The  pollen  grain  is 
in  this  view  the  primitive  cell,  and  is  itself 
quickened  into  development  by  the  contents  of 


inHippurisvuIgaris.Theffcrti-tne  embryo  Sac. 

lized  cell  has  divided  itsell  in-          Hnr\         T-« 

to  several,  of  which  c,  6,  con-          760'         FERTILIZATION       IN      THE       CONIFERS. 

stitute  the  suspemor  attached  Where  no  style  or  stigma  exists,  as  in  the  Coni- 

4  ceils.  of  the  naked  ovule  and  its  tubes  settle  into  the 

tissue  of  the  nucleus. 

761.  CHEMICAL  CHANGES  in  germina- 
tion.    The  ovule  matures  with  the  com- 
pletion of  the  embryo,  and   passes  into 
the  fixed  state  of  the  seed  in  which  the 
embryo    sleeps.      A  store  of    nutritive 
matter,  starch,  gluten,   etc4.,  is  thought- 
fully provided  in  the  seed  for  the  use  of 
the  young  plant  in  germination,  until  its 
root  has  gained  fast  hold  of  the  soil. 

762.  THE  CHANGES  WHICH  OCCUR  IN 
THE   SEED   at    the  recommencement  of 

609,  Ovule  of  Viola  tricolor,  showing 

growth,  are  simply  such  as  are  requisite  the  process  of  fertilization  according  to 

Pollen  ;   t, 
,  primine  ; 

proper  a,  secundine ;  71,  nucleus ;  s,  sac  which 
materials    for    cell-formation    or  growth  ;  tlie  tube  aPPears  to  have  penetrated. 

that  is,  gluten  and  other  nitrogenous  matters,  oil,  starch,  etc.,  are  to  be 
changed  to  diastase,  the  same  as  yeast,  and  dextrine,  the  same  as  gum 
or  grape  sugar. 


to  reduce  its  dry,  insoluble  deposits  to  a  th°  views  ,of  Schlei(1^.  p, 

,      .  i-  1       -,  tube,  r,  raphe;  c,  chalaza;  £ 

Solution  Which    shall    contain  the 


RIPENING    OF   FRUITS.  151 

763.  THE  PROCESS.  To  this  end  water  and  oxygen  are  absorbed,  the 
gluten  begins  decomposition,  forming  yeast ;  fermentation  ensues  ;  heat 
is  produced  by  the  slow  combustion  of  the  carbon  with  oxygen  form- 
ing and  evolving  carbonic  acid,  by  which  process  some  of  the  oil  and 
starch  is  destroyed,  while  another  portion  gains  water  and  turns  to 
sugar.  All  this  within  the  cells  of  the  seed. 


RIPENING   OF    FRUITS. 

764.  In  the  pericarps  of  most  fleshy  fruits  (grape,  pear,  apple,  peach, 
strawberry),  sugar  exists  before  germination,  ready  formed  in  the  process 
of  ripening. 

765.  How  THE  FRUIT  GROWS.     In  its  earliest  stages  the  pericarp  consisted  of  a 
structure  similar  to  that  of  green  leaves,  composed  of  parenchyma,  pleurenchyma, 
vessels,  and  epidermis  with  stomata.     Its  distended  growth  afterwards  results  from 
the  accumulation  of  the  flowing  sap,  which  here  finds  an  axis  incapable  of  exten- 
sion.    Thus  arrested  in  its  progress,  it  gorges  the  pistil  and  adjacent  parts,  is  con- 
densed by  exhalation,  assimilated  by  then*  green  tissues,  which  still  perform  the 
office  of  leaves.     Cell-formation  goes  on  rapidly  within,  and  the  excess  of  cellulose 
is  deposited  in  the  cells  as  starch.   Oxygen  is  usually  absorbed  in  excess,  acidifying 
the  juices. 

766.  How  IT  RIPENS.     After  the  fruit  has  attained  its  full  growth, 
the  process  of  ripening  commences,  during  which  the  pulp  becomes 
gradually  sweetened  and  softened  chiefly  by  the  change  of  the  starch 
into  more  or  less  of  soluble  sugar. 

767.  HONEY.  ,  In  the  same  way  we  account  for  the  production  of 
honey  in  the  flower.     Copious  deposits  of  starch  are  provided  in  the 
receptacle  and  disc   (§  446).     At  the  opening  of  the  flower,  this  is 
changed  to  sugar  to  aid  in  the  rapid  development  of  those  delicate  or- 
gans which  have  no  chlorophylle  wherewith  to  assimilate  their  own 
food.     The  excess  of  sugar  flows  over  in  the  form  of  honey. 

768.  THE  WISE  ECONOMY  OF  THE  HONEY  is  seen  in  fertilization.    For, 
attracted  by  it,  the  insect  enters  the  flower,  rudely  brushes  the  pollen 
from  the  now  open  anthers,  and  inevitably  lodges  some  of  its  thousand 
grains  upon  the  stigma  ! 

769.  EXPERIMENT  HAS  PROVED  that  in  all  these  cases  of  the  formation  of  sugar 
from  starch  oxygen  is  absorbed  and  carbonic  acid  evolved, — a  process  which  we 
might  expect,  since  starch  (Ci2  HIO  Oio)  contains  proportionably  more  carbon  than 
sugar  (Ci2  HI-J  Oia)  contains.  It  is  probable  that  these  two  phenomena  in  vegetation 
are  always  co-existent. 


152  ABSORPTION. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

§  1.   ABSORPTION. 

770.  OFFICE  OF  THE  ROOT.    The  absorption  of  liquids,  containing  in 
solution  the  food  of  the  plant,  is  the  peculiar  and  indispensable  office  of 
the  root,  as  may  be  shown  by  an 

771.  EXPERIMENT.    Take  a  small  growing  plant  from  the  earth  and  immerse  it  by 
its  roots,  which  should  be  nearly  or  quite  entire,  in  a  cup  containing  a  definite  quan- 
tity of  water.     Place  near  it  another  cup  with  a  like  quantity  of  water  to  indicate 
the  amount  of  evaporation.     The  difference  of  the  diminution  in  the  two  cups  will 
be  the  amount  of  absorption.     A  plant  of  spearmint  has  thus  been  found  to  absorb 
more  than  twice  its  own  weight  per  day.     Every  one  is  familiar  with  the  rapid  dis- 
appearance of  water  from  the  roots  of  potted  plants,  as  Hydrangea,  Oleander. 

772.  THE  ABSORBENTS.     An  impervious  epidermis  destitute  of  sto- 
mata  everywhere  clothes  the  roots,  excepting  its  fibrillae  and  the  tender 
extremities  of  the  rootlets.     No  part,  therefone,  is  capable  of  absorp- 
tion except  the  latter.     But  these,  by  their  multiplied  numbers,  present 
an  adequate  absorbing  surface  to  the  soil. 

773.  EXPERIMENT.     Let  a  growing  radish  be  placed  in  such  a  position  that  only 
the  fibrils  at  the  end  may  be  immersed  in  water; — it  will  continue  to  flourish.  But 
if  the  root  be  so  bent  that  the  fibrils  shall  remain  dry  while  the  body  of  the  root 
only  is  immersed,  the  plant  will  soon  wither,  but  will  again  revive  if  the  fibrils  be 
again  immersed. 

774.  INFERENCE.     Hence,  in  transplanting  a  tree   almost  the  only 
danger  to  its  life  arises  from  the  difficulty  of  preserving  a  sufficient 
number  of  these  rootlets. 

775.  THE  FORCE  WITH  WHICH  PLANTS  ABSORB  FLUIDS  by  their  roots 
is  surprisingly  great,  as  shown  by 

776.  EXPERIMENT.     If  the  stem  of  a  grape-vine  be  cut  off  when  the  sap  is  as- 
cending, and  a  bladder  be  tied  to  the  end  of  the  standing  part,  it  will  in  a  few  days 
become  distended  with  sap  even  to  bursting.     Dr.  Hales  contrived  to  fix  a  mercu- 
rial gauge  to  a  vine  thus  severed,  and  found  the  upward  pressure  of  the  sap  equal 
to  twenty-six  inches  of  mercury,  or  thirteen  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 

777.  BUT  WHAT  CAUSES  THIS  absorption  of  fluids  in  a  direction  con- 
trary to  gravitation  ?     In  explanation  of  this   phenomenon   reference 
has  been  made  to  two  well-known  principles  in  physics,  viz.,  to  capillary 
attraction  by  the  tubular  vessels  and  to  endosmose  by  the  closed  cells, 
which  are  far  more  numerous. 

778.  EXPERIMENT.     Invert  the  end  of  several  open  thermometer  tubes  in  a  colored 
liquid.     It  will  be  seen  rising  in  the  tubes  above  its  level,  to  various  heights — high- 
est in  the  smallest  calibre. 

779.  EXP.    Suspend  a  napkin  in  such  fashion  that  its  lowest  corner  shall  dip 
into  a  cup  of  water.    In  a  few  hours  the  water  will  have  ascended  into  the  napkin. 
These  are  results  of  capillary  attraction. 


ABSORPTION.  153 

780.  EXP.     Throw  dried  prunes,  currants,  or  raisins  into  water.     After  a  while 
they  will  have  become  swollen  and  distended  with  fluid.    Now  place  them  in  strong 
syrup ;  they  will  again  shrink. 

781.  EXP.     Attach  a  bladder  filled  with  syrup  to  a  long  glass  tube,  and  immerse 
hi  water.     The  water  flows  in  and  the  mixture  arises  slowly  but  forcibly  in  the  tube. 
Reverse  the  liquids.     Pure  water  from  within  the  bladder  will  flow  into  syrup  with- 
out.    The  former  is  a  case  of  endosmose  (ivdov,  inwards,  fiti,  to  seek),  the  latter  of 
exosrnose  (f'£w,  outwards). 

782.  DIRECTION  OF  THE  CURRENTS.    The  flow  will  continue  until  the  two  fluids 
are  equal  in  density.     In  both  cases  there  is  also  a  flowing  of  syrup  into  the  water, 
but  the  greater  flow  is  always  from  the  lighter  into  the  denser  fluid. 

783.  THE  FORCE  OF  ENDOSMOSE  is  found  to  depend  upon  the  excess  in  density  of 
the  inner  fluid.     Syrup,  with  the  density  of  1.3,  caused  a  flow  of  water  with  an  up- 
ward pressure  of  4|  atmospheres  (Dutrochel}.    The  great  force  with  which  the  cap- 
sule of  the  squirting  cucumber  (§  606)  bursts  shows  the  power  of  endosmose.     But 
a  more  probable  theory  is  stated  in  §  791. 

784.  THE  USE  OF  ABSORPTION  in  the  vegetable  economy  is  notmerely 
the  introduction  of  so  much  water  into  the  plant,  but  to  obtain  for  its 
growth  the  elements  of  its  food  held  in  solution,  whether  gaseous  or 
earthy.     In  attaining  this  object,  the  roots  seem  to  be  endowed  with  a 
certain  power  of  selection  or  choice  which  we  can  not  explain.     Thus, 
if  wheat  be  grown  in  the  same  soil  with  the  pea,  the  former  will  select 
the  silica  along  with  tho  water  which  it  absorbs  in  preference  to  the 
lime  ;  the  pea  selects  the  lime  in  preference  to  the  silica.     Buckwheat 
will  take  chiefly  magnesia,  cabbage  and  beans,j?ota$A.     This  fact  shows 
the  importance  of  the  rotation  of  crops  in  agriculture. 

785.  OTHER  MEANS  OF  ABSORPTION.     The  office  of  absorption  is  not 
performed  by  the  root  alone.     Every  green  part,  but  especially  the  lea£ 
is  capable  of  absorbing  gases  and  watery  vapor. 

786.  PROOFS.     Every  one  knows  how  greatly  plants,  when  parched  and  withered 
by  drought,  are  revived  by  a  shower  which  sprinkles  their  leaves  without  reaching 
their  roots.   Air  plants  or  epiphites  (§  143),  such  as  the  long-moss  and  Epidendrum, 
must  rely  on  this  source  chiefly  for  the  supply  of  their  food  ;  and  when  the  dissev- 
ered stems  of  such  plants  as  the  houseleek  grow  without  roots,  suspended  by  a  thread 
in  air,  it  is  evident  that  all  their  nourishment  comes  through  their  leaves. 

CIRCULATION. 

787.  TENDENCY  OF  THE  FLOW.     The  fluids  which  are  thus  taken 
into  the  system  by  absorption  can  not  remain  inactive  and  stagnant 
As  their  inward  flow  is  regular  and  constant  in  its  season,  so  must  be 
their  upward  and  outward  flow,  in  a  course  more  or  less  direct,  toward 
the  parts  where  they  find  an  outlet  or  a  permanent  fixture. 

788.  IN  THOSE  CRYPTOGAMS  which  are  composed  of  cellular  tissue 
alone  the  circulation  of  the  sap  consists  only  of  a  uniform  diffusion 
from  cell  to  cell  throughout  the  mass,  as  through  a  sponge. 

789.  IN  THE  HIGHER  PLANTS,  the  different  tissues  perform  appropriate 


154  CIRCULATION. 

offices  in  the  circulation,  some  conducting  upward,  some  downward,  some 
conveying  the  crude  sap,  some  latex,  and  some  air. 

790.  AIR-VESSELS.     Spiral  vessels  and  others  of  the  trachenchyma 
are  generally  filled  with  air,  and  take  no  part  in  the  circulation  of  fluids, 
except  in  the 'spring,  when  the  whole  system  is  gorged  with  sap.     The 
intercellular  passages,  also,  'generally  circulate  air  alone. 

791.  THE  MOVING  FORCE,     from  the  roots  the  newly  absorbed  fluid 
flows  upward  through  the  stems  and  branches,  toward  the  buds,  leaves, 
and  flowers,  being  probably  drawn  thither  into  them  by  the  exhalation 
and  consequent  exhaustion  there  going  on. 

792.  THROUGH  WHAT  TISSUE.     The  tissue  of  the  stem  and  branches 
through  which  the  ascending  sap  loves  chiefly  to  travel  is  the  pleuren- 
chyma — those  long  cells  of  the  wood  fiber,  whether  arranged  in  broad 
layers,  as  in  the  Exogens,  or  scattered  in  slender  bundles,  as  in  the  En- 
dogens. 

793.  THROUGH  WHICH  LAYERS.     And  when  the  stem  grows  old,  the 
sap  ceases  to  traverse  the  inner  layers, — the  duramen,  where  its  passage 
becomes  obstructed  by  thickened  cell  walls,  and  frequents  only  the  outer 
newer  layers, — the  alburnum,  next  adjoining  the  liber. 

^494.  THE  CRUDE  SAP.  The  fluid  which  thus  flows  upward  seeking 
the  leaves  consists  largely  of  water,  is  colorless,  and  is  called  the  crude 
sap.  It  contains  in  solution  minute  quantities  of  gases  and  mineral 
salts,  imbibed  by  the  roots,  together  with  dextrine  and  sugar  (no  starch) 
which  it  dissolved  out  of  the  cells  on  its  way.  This  is  the  fluid  which 
flows  so  abundantly  from  incisions  made  in  trees  in  early  spring. 

795.  THE  OVERFLOW  OF  THE  SAP  depends  upon  the  excess  of  absorption  over 
exhalation.  After  the  decay  of  the  leaves  in  autumn,  and  the  consequent  cessation 
of  exhalation,  the  rootlets,  being  deep  in  the  ground,  below  the  influence  of  frost, 
continue  their  action  for  a  time,  and  an  accumulation  of  sap  in  the  system,  even  in 
the  air-vessels  and  spaces,  takes  place.  Also  in  early  spring,  before  the  leaves  are 
developed,  this  action  recommences,  and  the  plant  becomes  gorged  with  sap,  which 
will  burst  forth  from  incisions,  as  in  the  sugar  maple,  or  sometimes  spontaneously, 
as  in  the  grape.  As  soon  as  the  buds  expand  into  leaves  and  flowers,  the  overflow 


796.  THE  TRUE  SAP.     Throughout  its  whole  course  to  the  leaves  the 
sap  gains  in  density  by  solution.     There  arrived,  it  loses  by  exhalation 
a  large  part  of  its  water,  gains  additional  carbon,  and  undergoes  other 
important  chemical  changes  (hereafter  to  be  noticed),  and  becomes  the 
true  sap,  dense  and  rich,  both  in  nutritive  matter  for  the  immediate 
growth  and  in  special  products  for  the  future  nourishment  of  the  plant. 

797.  RETURNING,  the  true  sap  distributes  its  treasures  in  due  and  ex- 
act proportion  as  needed  to  every  organ.     Its  course  lies  in  the  tissues 
of  the  bark,  cellular  and  woody,  first  distributed  over  the  under  surface 


CIRCULATION.  155- 

of  the  leaves,  thence  by  the  leaf- stalks  into  the  liber,  and  so  pervading 
all,  down  to  the  extremities  of  the  roots. 

798.  ON  ITS  PASSAGE  IT  MAKES  DEPOSITS  of  food,  first  in  the  cells, 
of  the  pith  at  the  base  of  every  incipient  bud  ;  then  in  the  cambium 
region  a  copious  store ;    next  in  the  medullary  rays  a  due  portion, 
some  carried  outward  for  the  supply  of  the  cortical  layer,  and  some  in- 
ward for  solidifying  the  wood  ;  and  lastly,  the  residue,  often  the  richest 
legacy  of  all,  falls  to  the  root/,  and  fills  every  branch  and  fiber,  however 
vast  its  extent.     This  last  deposit  is  that  which  is  first  met  and  dissolved 
by  the  rising  tide  of  fluid  in  the  following  spring. 

799.  GROWTH  PROGRESSES  DOWNWARD.      Since  the  flowing  of  the 
true  elaborated  sap  is  downward,  it  scarce  admits  of  a  doubt  that  the 
progress  of  the  growth  is  also  downward,  from  the  leaves  to  the  roots. 
And  on  no  other  supposition  can  we  account  for  the  results  of  the  fol- 
lowing 

800.  EXPERIMENT.     Girdle  an  exogenous  tree  by  removing  an  entire  ring  of  its 
bark.     It  will  flourish  still  during  one  growing  season,  and  form  a  new  layer  of  wood 
and  bark  everywhere  above  the  wound,  as  before,  but  not  at  all  below.     The  next 
season  the  tree  will  die.    Why  ?    Because  the  true  sap  returning  can  not  descend 
to  nourish  the  roots. 

801.  EXP.     If  a  ligature  be  bound  firmly  around  a  stem  (sc.  of  silver-leaf  poplar) 
its  growth  is  checked  below,  while  the  part  just  above  will  exhibit,  after  a  year  or 
two,  a  circular  swelling  evidently  caused  by  the,  interruption  of  the  descending  sap. 

802.  EXP.     If  a  chip  be  cut  from  the  trunk,  the  wound  heals  evidently  from  the 
upper  side. 

803.  EXP.     Cut  off  the  top  of  a  branch  just  below  a  leaf.     The  upper  remaining 
internode  will  perish.     It  has  no  leaf  above  it  to  send  down  its  food. 

804.  EXP.     Girdle  carefully  the  stem  of  a  potato-plant.     No  tubers  will  be  formed 
below.     And,  again,  girdle  a  fruit  tree,  and  the  fruit  will  for  once  be  increased  in 
amount. 

805.  IN"  A   FEW  INSTANCES  TREES  HA.VE  SURVIVED  THE  GIRDLING  PROCESS.      In 

such  cases  the  medullary  rays  complete  the  broken  currents.  The  descending  sap, 
on  arriving  at  the  ring,  flows  inwardly  by  the  medullary  rays,  making  a  circuit,  and 
appears  again  in  the  bark  below  the  interruption. 

806.  ROTATION.     Beside  this  general  circulation  of  fluids  rising  and 
falling  from  extremity  to  extremity,  there  is  also  a  special  circulation 
going  on  pretty  constantly  in  each  new  cell,  called  rotation. 

807.  ROTATION  is  a  flowing  of  the  protoplasm  in  slender  and  devious 
currents  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  primordial  utricle,  rendered  per- 
ceptible by  the  opaque  particles  floating  in  it.     The  cytoblast  also  par- 
takes of  the  movement.    It  is  well  observed  in  the  hairs  of  Tradescantia, 
leaves  of  Vallesneria,  and  especially  in  the  steins  of  Chara,  where  the 
current  expands  into  an  entire  revolving  layer  of  protoplasm.     It  is  a 
vital  movement. 


156  RESPIRATION. 

TRANSPIRATION. 

808.  TRANSPIRATION  relates  to  that  important  office  performed  by  the 
leaves  and  other  green  organs,  whereby  pure  water  is  separated  from  the 
crude  sap  and  given  off  into  the  air.     It  takes  place  chiefly  through  the 
stomata,  and  is  greatest  by  day  and  in  a  warm,  dry  atmosphere. 

809.  UPON     THE     ACTIVITY     OF     TRANSPIRATION     DEPENDS    also     the 

amount  of  absorption.  It  not  only  makes  room  for  the  fluids  from  be- 
low to  enter,  but  by  disturbing  their  equilibrium,  it  creates  an  upward 
tendency,  as  the  flame  of  a  lamp  draws  the  fluid  up  the  wick.  All  the 
mineral  and  organic  constituents  of  the  sap  are  of  course  left  in  the 
plant. 

810.  THE -QUANTITY  OF  PURE  WATER  TRANSPIRED  by  plants  is  immense.      A 
forest  makes  a  damp  atmosphere  for  miles  around.     Dr.  Hales,  in  a  series  of  instruc- 
tive experiments  in  transpiration,  ascertained  that  a  sunflower  three  and  a  half  feet 
high,  with  a  surface  of  5,616  square  inches,  transpired  from  20  to  30  oz.  in  twelve 
hours;  a  cabbage,  15  to  25  oz.  in  the  same  time — equal  to  the  transpiration  of  a 
dozen  laboring  men.     "We  may  easily 

811.  EXPERIMENT  with  a  single  leaf  recently  plucked,  say  of  Podophyllum.     In- 
sert its  petiole  in  a  narrow-mouthed  goblet  of  water,  and  around  it  fill  the  mouth 
with  dry  cotton  to  restrain  evaporation.     Over  the  whole  place  a  bell-glass  and  ex- 
pose to  the  sunshine.     The  vapor  transpired  will  condense  on  the  bell-glass,  equal- 
ing (save  the  solid  matters)  the  loss  in  the  goblet. 

^       INSPIRATION. 

812.  RESPIRATION  in*  plants  refers  to  their  refations  to  the  atmos- 
phere.   So  in  animals.    These  relations  are  in  either  case  vitally  impor- 
tant. 

813.  EXPERIMENT.     Place  a  small,  healthy  potted  plant  (sc.  Geranium,  Mimosa) 
under  the  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  and  thoroughly  exhaust  the  air.     At  once  every 
vital  process  ceases — no  absorption,  no  assimilation,  no  irritability,  but  speedily  de- 
cay ensues.     A  vacuum  would  bo  no  more  fatal  to  a  sparrow.     Air  is  quite  as 
necessary  to  the  one  as  to  the  other. 

814.  ILLUSTRATION.     So  also  when  only  the  roots  are  excluded  from  the  air  by 
being  buried  deeply  in  an  embankment,  the  tree  suffers  injury  and  perhaps  perishes. 

815.  RESPIRATION  IN  PLANTS,  OR  AERATION   (as  sometimes  called) 
consists  of  all  those  operations  by  which  the  sap  is  brought  into  con- 
tact with  the  air  or  subjected  to  its  influence.     It  occurs  in  the  inter- 
cellular passages,  in  the  spiral  vessels  everywhere,  but  especially  in  the 
leaves  and  all  other  organs  which  have  chlorophylle  and  stomata. 

816.  THE  VITAL  IMPORTANCE  OF  RESPIRATION  is  seen  in  the  vast  ex- 
tent of  the  respiratory  apparatus,  consisting  of  millions  of  leaves  and 
billions  of  breathing  pores  (stomata)  and  trachea?  (vessels)  ! 

817.  THE  FACTS  connected  with  respiration,  which  seem  to  have  been 
well  established  by  the  experiments  of  Saussure,  Garreau,  Moue,  Draper, 
etc.,  are  these : 


RESPIRATION.  157 

1.  Carbonic  acid  (C  02)  is  absorbed  by  the  leaves  and  all  green  tis- 
sues, under  the  direct  solar  light. 

2.  Oxygen  (0)  is  absorbed  by  the  leaves  and  all  green  tissues  in  the 
absence  of  direct  solar  light,  and  by  the  roots,  flowers,  fruits,  and  ger- 
minating seeds  at  all  times. 

3.  The  oxygen  thus  absorbed  unites  with  some  of  the  free  (or  nas- 
cent) carbon  already  in  the  tissues,  and  forms  carbonic  acid. 

4.  By  a  process  of  assimilation   (§  747)  carbonic  acid  within  the 
green  tissues,  from  whatever  source  derived,  is  decomposed  under  the 
direct  sunshine,  and  its  carbon  is  retained  ;  but 

5.  Its  oxygen  is  set  free  and  exhaled. 

6.  Carbonic  acid  is  exhaled  by  the  leaves  and  all  the  green  tissues 
in  the  absence  of  the  sunshine,  and  by  all  other  parts  (root,  flowers, 
fruit,  and  germinating  see<ls)  at  all  times.     Hence  it  appears  that  there 
are 

818.  Two  PHASES  of  aerial  action  constantly  performed  and  seem- 
ingly opposed  to  each  other.     One  dependent  wholly  upon  the  clear 
sunshine,  in  which,  by  the  leaves,  etc.,  C  O2  is  absorbed,  decomposed,  and 
O  returned  to  the  atmosphere  ;  the  other,  in  which  O  is  absorbed,  and 
C  O3  exhaled,  by  the  leaves  in  the  absence  of  sunshine,  and  by  a.11  other 
parts  (roots,  flowers,  etc.)  at  all  times.     Both  are  equally  and  vitally 
important. 

819.  THE  FORMER  PROCESS  BECOMES  VISIBLE  to  the  eye  by  the  rapid  development 
of  chlorophylle  accompanying  it,  the  latter  by  its  gradual  loss.     Hence,  during  a 
protracted  season  of  cloudy  weather  vegetation  grows  sensibly  paler ,  but  a  few 
hours  of  sunshine  restores  the  green  to  its  wonted  .gepth  and  richness. 

820.  BLANCHED  PLANTS.     Hence,  also,  plants  growing  in  constant  darkness  and 
shade,  as  potatoes  in  the  cellar,  are  very  pale,  and  manifest  their  affinity  for  light 
by  stretching  themselves  with  famishing  eagerness  towards  the  slender  sunbeam 
which  gains  admittance.     Analysis  shows  structures  ttjus  grown  to  be  deficient  in 
carbon.     "We  may  easily  repeat  the 

821.  EXPERIMENT  OF  SAUSSURE.    Place  a  quantity  of  freshly  gathered  leafy  stems 
under  a  bell-glass  full  of  rain-water,  and  thus  expose  them  to  the  sun.     Soon  bub- 
bles of  gas  arise  and  slowly  collect  above,  pure  oxygen  gas,  as  long  ago  proved  by 
Dr.  Priestly. 

822.  EEPEAT  THE  EXPERIMENT  with  boiled  or  distilled  water,  and  no  oxygen  will 
appear.    Eain- water  contains  C  02  in  solution,  boiled  water  does  not.     The  0  irust 
therefore  have  coine  from  the  C  Oa  as  would  appear. 

823.  EXPERIMENT.     Inclose  air-tight  in  a  glass  globe  the  end  of  a  leafy  branch, 
without  severing  it  from  the  tree.     Thus  it  has  been  found  by  careful  analysis  after 
a  day  of  sunshine  that  the  proportion  of  0  was  increased  at  the  expense  of  C  00 
within  the  globe ;  and  vice  versa  by  night  or  in  the  shade. 

824.  THE  RESULTS  of  both  transpiration  and  respiration,  as  concerns 
the  plants,  tend  to  concentrate  the  diluted  sap  by  the  elimination  of  the 


158  REVIEW    OF   THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    NUTRITION. 

water,  which  served  merely  for  its  conveyance,  and  to  assimilate  it  into 
food  capable  of  being  organized  into  cells  and  their  various  contents. 

And  it  is  proper  in  this  place  also  to  notice  the  effects  of  this  vast 
machinery  upon  the -constitution  of  the  atmosphere  and  its  relation  to 
the  animal  kingdom. 

825.  CARBONIC  ACID  gas  is  dissolved  in  the  atmosphere  and  some- 
what uniformly  diffused  throughout  its  whole  extent  in  the  proportion 
of  about  4  parts  in  10,000,  or  ^jo-     This  gas  flows,  and  is  ever  flow- 
ing into  the  air  from  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  from 
combustion,  and  from  the  breath  of  all  living  animals.     The  quantity 
thus  added  to  the  atmosphere  annually  is  estimated  at  100  billions  Ibs., 
or  nearly  one  tenth  of  the  whole  amount  of  carbon,  and  yet  it  does  not 
accumulate. 

826.  THE    DEMAND   AND   SUPPLY.     Were  we  able  ~to   compute   in 
pounds  the  annual  growth  of  the  entire  plant  world,  and  the  proportion 
of  solid  carbon  which  enters  into  that  amount,  we  should  doubtless  find 
that  the  grand  total  of  the  demand  equals  this  grand  total  supply. 

A  POISONOUS  ATMOSPHERE.  And  further ;  not  only  are  the  necessi- 
ties of  the  plant  met  by  this  wonderful  circulation,  but  the  necessities 
of  animal  existence  also.  Carbonic  acid  is  poisonous,  and  should  it  be 
left  to  accumulate  unchecked,  it  would  gradually  corrupt  the  air,  and 
within  a  few  centuries  extinguish  all  animal  life. 

828.  ANIMALS  AND  PLANTS  MUTUALLY  DEPENDENT.  Thus  are  the 
two  kingdoms  of  the  organic  world  mutually,  through  the  inorganic, 
dependent  upon  each  other.  The  plant  furnishes  the  oxygen  which 
the  animal  consumes,  the  animal  the  carbonic  acid  which  the  plant 
consumes,  while  each  would  perish  in  an  atmosphere  of  its  own  pro- 
duction. "  Great  and  marvelous  are  thy  works,  O  Lord  of  Hosts !  in 
wisdom  hast  thou  made  them  all." 


CHAPTER     VII. 

KEVIEW   OF   THE   PRINCIPLES   OF    NUTRITION. 

829.  THE  FOUR  ORGANOGENS.  It  has  already  appeared  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapters  that  plants  consist  chiefly  of  four  simple  organic  ele- 
ments, viz. :  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen.  The  first  exists  in  a 
larger  proportion,  the  last  in  a  smaller  than  either  of  the  others. 
Unitedly  these  four  elements  constitute  about  94  per  cent,  of  all  vege- 
table matter. 


REVIEW    OF   THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    NUTRITION. 


159 


830.  CARBON  (essentially  charcoal)  enters  so  largely  into  the  composition  of 
plants  that  it  retains  generally  the  exact  form  and  texture  of  the  wood  after  the 
other  elements  have  been  expelled  by  heat.     On  this  element  chiefly  depends  the 
solidity  and  strength.     Its  proportion  is  from  40  to  60  per  cent.    Nitrogen,  although 
equally  essential,  is  less  abundant  in  the  tissues,  and  exists  largely  only  in  certain 
vegetable  products,  as  gluten,  albumen,  casein,  theine. 

831.  OXYGEN  AND  HYDROGEN  exist  in  plants  combined  with  other  elements,  and 
also  combined  with  each  other  forming  water,  especially  in  all  fresh  green  vege- 
table matter.     The  water  is  expelled  by  drying,  and  the  following  table  shows,  in 
a  few  cases,  the  proportion  for  each  100  Ibs. 

Peas  lose  of  water. . 8  Ibs.  !  Apples  and  pears 83  Ibs, 

Wheat. .  .  14  Ibs.  i  Red  beet 85  Ibs. 


Rye  and  oats 15  Ibs. 

Wheat  straw 26  Ibs. 

Potatoes  about 75  Ibs. 


Strawberries  and  gooseberries.  90  Ibs. 

Turnips 93  Ibs. 

Watermelons . .  95  Ibs. 


832.  EARTHY   ELEMENTS.      Besides  these  four  universal  elements, 
many  other  substances,   earthy  and  mineral,  are  found  in  quantities 
greater  or  less,  in  different  species.     Thus  forest-trees  and  most  inland 
plants  contain  potassa;  marine  plants,  soda,  iodine ;  the  grasses,  silex, 
phosphate  of  lime ;    rhubarb  and  sorrel,  oxalate  of  lime ;  leguminous 
plants,  carbonate  of  lime  ;  the  Cruciferse,  sulphur,  etc. 

833.  THE  PROPORTION  OF  EARTHY  MATTER  is  small  and  may  be  estimated  from 
the  ashes.     As  drying  expels  the  water,  so  burning  expels  all  other  organic  ele- 
ments, and  the  inorganic  earthy,  whatever  they  be,  remain  in  the  form  of  ash.   The 
following  table  from  Bousingault  is  instructive  on  this  point. 


Wheat 
Grain.     Straw. 

Oa 

Grain. 

ts 
Straw. 

la 

2* 

£~ 

II 

£ 

!• 

if 

Carbon  
Hydrogen.  .  . 
Oxygen  .... 
Nitrogen.  .  .  . 
Ash 

46.1 
5.8 
43.4 
2.3 
2.4 

48.4 
5.3 
38.95 
.35 

7. 

50.7 
6.4 
36.7 
2.2 
4. 

50.1 
5.4 
39.0 
.4 

5.1 

46.5 
6.1 
40.1 
4.2 
3.1 

49.4 
5.8 
35.0 
7.0 
2.8 

45.8 
5.0 
38.7 
1.5 
9.0 

42.9 
5.6 
42.2 

3 

44.0 
5.8 
44.7 
1.5 
4.0 

100        100   |    100 

100        100 

1 

100        100 

100 

100  ; 

834.  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY,.    Since  all  these  elements  are  found  in  plants, 
we  infer  them  to  be  essential  ingredients  iu  the  food  which  they  require  for  healthy 
vegetation  ;  ^nd  an  inquiry  into  the  sources  from  which  they  may  be  supplied  con- 
stitutes the  chief  object  of  Agricultural  Chemistry. 

835.  THE  FOOD  OF  PLANTS  is  air,  earth,  and  water.     It  is  evident 
that  plants  do  not  create  a  particle  of  matter,  and  therefore  do  not 
originate   in   themselves  any  of  the  elements    which  compose  them. 
Consequently  they  must  obtain  them  from  sources  without.     C:irbon  is 
derived  from  the  carbonic  acid  contained  in  the  atmosphere,  and  from 
the  decaying  vegetable  matter  of  the  soil.     Oxygen  is  derived  from  the 


160  BE  VIEW    OF    THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    NUTRITION. 

'? 

water  and  from  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  atmosphere ;  hydrogen  fron 
water  and  ammonia,  and  nitrogen  from  ammonia  and  nitric  acid,  drawi 
either  from  the  atmosphere  or  the  soil. 

836.  THE  ATMOSPHERE  CONTAINS  about  ar^  part  of  carbonic  acid,  diffused  through 
out  its  whole  extent ;  and  as  this  gas  contains  27  per  cent,  of  carbon,  it  is  demon 
strable  that  the  whole  atmosphere  contains  morejjjan  600  billions  (600,000,000,000 
of  tons  of  solid  carbon,   derived  from  the  sources  already  mentioned  (§  835),— 
an  amount  fully  adequate  to  the  demands  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

837.  SOIL  consists  of  two  classes  of  materials,  viz. :  mineral,  and  organic.     Th 
former,  called  earths,  consists  of  disintegrated  and  pulverized  rocks,  including  a] 
the  various  mineral  substances  which  are  found  to  enter  into  the  composition  ol 
plants,  as  potassa,  sod^  silica,  lime,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  more  or  less  soluble  ii 
water.     The  organic  materials  consist  of  the  remains  of  former  tribes  of  plants  am 
animals  mingled  with  the  earths ;  and  which,  having  access  to  the  air,  are  decom 
posed,  evolving  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia  both  to  the  air  and  the  water. 

838.  WATER  is  composed  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  (HO)  hi  the  proportion  of 
to  1  by  weight,  or  one  atom  of  each  to  each.     Having  pervaded  the  atmosphere  ii 
the  state  of  vapor  and  rain,  and  percolated  through  the  soil,  it  holds  in  solu 
tion  carbonic  and  nitric  acids,  ammonia,  and  many  of  the  various  minerals  abov 
mentioned. 

839.  AMMONIA  consists  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen  combined  in  the  proportion  o 
one  atom  of  the  former  to  three  of  the  latter  (N  H3).     It  arises  from  decaying  ani 
mal  and  vegetable  matter,  as  above  stated,  and  is  diffused  through  the  atmospher 
in  the  proportion  of  about  1  part  in  10,000. 

840.  NITRIC  ACID  is  ateo  believed  to  yield  nitrogen  to  plants.     It  consists  of  on 
atom  of  nitrogen  to  five  of  oxygen  (N  03).     During  thunder-storms  it  is  generate' 
in  the  air  by  lightning  and  brought  down  by  rain.     When  combined  with  th 
bases,  as  potassa,  soda,  etc.,  it  forms  nitrates — substances  known  to  be  efficient  fei 
tilizers  in  soils. 

841.  AIR  PLANTS.     Thus  it  appears  that  water,  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia  (o 
nitric  acid)  may  yield  to  plants  their  four  essential  organic  elements.     And  since  a] 
of  them  are  contained  in  the  atmosphere,  some  plants  are  capable  of  subsisting  01 
air  alone  (long  moss,  lichens) ;  but  most  species  are  dependent  on  water,  earth,  am 
air,  and  demand  a  copious  supply. 

842.  THE    EXTERNAL    CIRCUMSTANCES,  therefore,  first  requisite    t< 
healthy  vegetation  are, — 1,  free  access  to  an  atmosphere  which  is  oftei 
agitated  by  winds ;  2,  a  proper  supply  of  rain  or  river  water ;  3,  a  soi 
possessing  the  peculiar  minerals  required  by  the  species  to  be  growi 
upon  it,  together  with  a  certain  proportion  of  vegetable  mold. 

843.  THE  SUPPLY.     The  first  of  these    is    everywhere   abunclantb 
supplied  by  nature,  and  asks  no  aid  from  man.     The  second  and  thir< 
are  often  deficient,  and  are  to  be  supplied  by  the  labors  of  agriculture 
By  irrigation  streams  of  water  are  turned  from  their  natural  channels  t< 
add  to  the  scanty  moisture  of  fields  parched  with  drought ;  by  drain 
age  the  inundated  bog  is  converted  into  a  luxuriant  lawn. 

844.  THE  OBJECT  OP  TILLAGE  is  to  pulverize  and  lighten  the  too  compact  soil 
and  thus  expose  every  part  to  the  oxygen  of  the  air  in  order  to  hasten  its  decompo 
sition.     Subsoiling,  or  deep  ploughing,  is  an  operation  whereby  that  stratum  of  eartl 


REVIEW    OF    THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    NUTRITION. 

which  lies  just  below  the  ordinary  soil  is  moved  and  subjected  to  atmospheric  in- 
fluence. The  subsoil,  with  less  organic  matter,  contains  often  soluble  fertilizing 
earths  which  may  thus  be  rendered  available  for  the  use  of  plants. 

845.  THE  OBJECT  OP  MANURING  is  mainly  to  increase  the  quantity  of  organic 
matter,  or  to  restore  to  the  soil  those  qualities  which  have  been  taken  away  by  tho 
crops.     By  various  amendments  (as  gypsum,  lime,  charcoal)  ammonia  is  strongly 
attracted  from  the  air  and  yielded  again  to  vegetation.     Marl  promotes  the  decom- 
position of  the  soil,  and  ashes  add  to  the  potassa— a  substance  which  also  exists 
naturallv  in  soils,  being  derived  from  the  decomposition  of  the  rocks  which  contain 
it,  as  granite,  clay -slate,  basalt,  etc. 

846.  BONE  MANURE  is  rich  in  the  phosphates  indispensable  in  tho  formation  of 
albumine,  gluten,  and  other  blood-making  qualities  of  fruits.     The  mineral  phos- 
phate of  lime,  bone-chalk,  etc.,  are  of  the  same  nature. 

847.  GUANO  is  a  manure  whose  great  value  depends  upon  its  abundant  nitrates 
and  ammoniacal  salts.     It  is  the  excrement  of  sea-fowl  which  has  for  ages  accumu- 
lated in  vast  deposits  on  certain  coasts  and  islands  of  South  America  and  Africa. 

848.  FALLOW  GROUND.     Soils  arc  often  improved  by  lying  fallow  for 
a  season,  thus  allowing  time  to  form,  by  decomposition,  a  fresh  supply 
of  that  particular  ingredient  which  had  been  exhausted  by  previous 
crops.     On  the  same  principle  is  explained  the   beneficial  effects  of  a 
rotation  of  such  crops  as  require  different  mineral  substances  in  their 
composition. 

849.  LIGHT  AND  HEAT.     After  all  these  materials  have  been  supplied 
to  the  plant,  still  two  other  agents  are  requisite,  without  which  the  great 
work  of  vegetation  will  not  go  on.     These  life-giving  principles  are  light 
and  hoat,  both  of  which  emanate  in  floods  from  the  sun.     Under  their 
influence  the  raw  material  is  received  into  the  vessels  of  the  plant  and 
assimilated  to  its  own  substance — a  process  which  can.be  fully  compre- 
hended only  by  HIM  whose  power  is  adequate  to  carry  it  on. 

850.  DIGESTION.     Under  the  influence  of  solar  light  and  a  temperature  above  the 
freezing  point,  water  holding  various  earths  in  solution  is  imbibed  by  the  roots  and 
raised  into  the  tissues  of  the  stem,  dissolving  as  it  passes  small  portions  of  gum  or 
su?ar  previously  deposited  there.     In  this  state  it  is  crude  sap.    Passing  on  it  enters 
the  leaves,  and  is  there  subjected  to  the  action  of  tho  chlorophylle  (§  657)  which 
chiefly  constitutes  the  apparatus  of  digestion.     Here  it  is  concentrated  by  transpi- 
ration, sending  off  quantities  ot  pure  water.     Meanwhile  the  leaves  are  imbibing 
carbonic  acid  from  the  air,  decomposing  it,  retaining  the  carbon,  and  returning  pure 
oxygen.     Thus  elaborated,  the  sap  is  now  called 

851.  THE  PROPER  JUICE,  consisting  evidently  of  carbon  and  water, 
with  a  little  nitrogen  'and  minute  portions  of  the  mineral  substances 
mentioned  above.     From  this,  the  vital  fluid,  arc  elaborated  the  build- 
ing material  of  the  vegetable  fabric,  and  all  its  various  products  and 
secretions. 

852.  PROTEIN,  OR  PROTOPLASM,  the  substance  of  the  primordial  utricle,  analogous 
in  composition  to  the  living  tissues  of  animals,  and  containing  nitrogen,  is  organized, 
first  of  all,  from  this  vital  fluid.     Cellulose  (or  lignin)  next,  the  peculiar  principle  of 
vegetable  tissue,  whether  cellulaL  vascular,  or  woody,  consisting  of  carbon  with  the.- 

11 


162 


REVIEW    OF    THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    NUTRITION. 


exact  elements  of  water,  viz.,  Ci2  HIO   Oio.     Then,  through  the  action  of  light,  chlo- 
rophylle  springs  into  being,  clothing  the  plant  in  living  green.     Meanwhile 

853.  GUM,  STARCH  AND  SUGAR,  nutritive  products  common  to  all  plants,  are  also 
developed  from  the  proper  juice — not  all  to  be  immediately  employed  in  building  up 
the  tissues,  but  mostly  to  be  stowed  away  in  reserve  for  future  use.     Such  deposits 
are  made  in  the  root  of  the  beet,  tuber  of  the  potato,  and  in  the  fruit  generally. 
These  three  products,  with  cellulose,  are  all  composed  of  carbon  and  the  elements 
of  water,  often  in  identical  proportions  ;  thus  cane  sugar  is  Ci2  His  Oia ;  grape  sugar. 
Ci->  Hn  On  ;  gum,  Ci2  HIO  Oio;  starch,  On  Hio  Oio;  cellulose,  CJ2  HIO  Oio. 

854.  SUGAR  is  SOMETIMES  PRODUCED  DIRECTLY  from  the  proper  juic3,  aa  in  the 
root  of  beet,  stalk  of  maize,  and  sugar-cane ;  but  oftener,  during  germination,  from 
the  starch  deposited  in  the  seed.     Its  composition,  as  seen  above,  differfe  from  that 
of  starch  only  in  containing  a  larger  proportion  of  the  elements  of  water  or  (what 
is  the  same)  a  smaller  proportion  of  carbon.     As  starch  is  insoluble,  its  transforma- 
tion into  soluble  gum  or  sugar  is  needful  to  render  it  available  for  the  nutrition  of 
the  growing  embryo. 

855.  THE  FACILITY  WITH  WHICH  THESE   FIVE   GENERAL  PRODUCTS  ARE   COX- 
VERTED  IXTO  EACH  OTHER,  both  in  the  growing  plant  and  in  .the  laboratory  of  tho 
chemist,  is  accounted  for  by  the  similarity  of  their  chemical  condition.     Thus  starch, 
gum  and  cellulose  may  reconvert  merely  by  some  change  in  the  arrangement  of  their 
constituent  atoms,  or  they  may  become  sugar  by  the  addition  of   ono  or  two  atoms 
of  water.  •  £". 

856.  AMONG  THE  NUMEROUS  SECRETIONS  of  plants,  which  our  limits  forbid  us  to 
consider,  are   the  vegetable  acids  containing  more  oxygen  proportionately  than 
exists  in  water ;  the  oily  acids,  resins  and  oils,  containing  less  oxygen  than  exists 
in  water,  or  none  at  all.     These  substances  vary  in  the  different  species  almost  to 
infinity,  taking  into  their  constitution,  in  addition  to  the  four  organogens,  minute 
portions  of  the  mineral  substances  introduced  by  rain  and  river  water.     Their  pecu- 
liarities of  odor,  flavor,  color,  properties,  etc.,  although  so  obvious  to  the  senses,  are 
occasioned  by  differences  of  constitution  often  so  slight  as  to  elude  the  most  delicate 
tests  of  the  chemist. 

857.  THE  FOLLOWING  TABLE  CONTAINS  examples  of  the  various  classes  of  secre- 
tions, arranged  in  reference  to  their  relative  proportion  of  oxygen : — 


CLASS. 

NAME  AND  6OUEGE. 

FORMULA.. 

>, 
H 

**>-3 

Oxalic,  Leaves  of  rhubarb,  sorrel,  etc.,.  .  .  . 
Citric,  Fruit  of  the  Orangeworts,  
Mallic,  Apples  and  many  fruits,  

C2  H  04 
Ci2  Hs  On 

€s  He  Oio 

The  propor- 
tion ofoxy- 
gen  to   hy- 

f| 

Tartaric,  Juice  of  grapes 

Cs  Ho  OP 

~  3 

Gallic,  Nutgalls  

Cu  He  Oirt 

ioecn^  is 

1 

Tannic,  Astringent  barks,  nutgalk  
Meconic,  Juice  of  the  Poppy  worts^  

C«  He  Os  ? 

Cl4  H4  Ol4 

in  water. 

. 

^2" 
«Sg 
-  *  2 

Grape  sugar.     Grapes,  raisins,  honey,  .... 
Cane  sugar.     Maple,  maize,  sorghum,  
Starch.     In  all  plants,  

Cl2  His  Ol3 

Ci2  Hn  On 
Gio  Hio  Oio 

The  oxygen 
proportion- 
"ed    to    by-1 
drojicii 

2  d~ 

tf  g*3 

Gum,  mucilage.     Common,  

CT>  HIO  Oio 

equally,    as; 

pi 

Cellulose.    Substance  of  cellular  membrane, 

Ci3  Hio  Oio 

REVIEW    OF    THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    NUTRITION. 


163 


CLASS. 

NAME    AND   8OUECE. 

FORMULA. 

§**  *H 
.-"t; 

Phloridein.     Bark  of  cherry,  apple,  etc.,.  .  .  JGi2  H7  OQ           (Oxygen    in 
Salicine.    Bark  of  willow,  fai«  H«  Or 

Populine.     Bark  of  aspen  (Populus),  .... 

ClO  Hp  04              slightly  less 
Cs7  Hi2  OlO            tlian  water. 

Meconine.     Juice  of  poppv 

Alizarine  (Turkey  red).     Madder 

!! 

^  >, 

=  s 

II 

Oil  of  anise.     Pimpinella  anisum,  
Oil  of  cinnamon.     Laurus  cinnamomum,  .  . 
Oil  of  clover.     Caryophyllus  aromaticus,  .  . 
Oil  of  sassafras.     Laurus  sassafras,  

Cl6  H8  O4 
C24  His  06 

Cio  H5  O2 
C24  H2o  02 

Cl2  HIO  02 

diminished 
proportion. 

Oil  of  peppermint.     Mentha  piperita.  
Oil  of  valerian.     Yaleriana  officinalis,  

"  n 

|| 

|-C 

Valeric  acid      Root  of  valerian               .-«.  . 

Cio  Hio  04 

CI4  Hl4  04 
Ci3  HIS  04 
C24  H24  04 

C28  H2S  04 

C44  H44  04 

Ceo  H6o  O4 

In  this  se- 
ries the  pro- 
portion   of 
oxygen 
regularly 
diminishes. 

Enanthylic.     Castor-oil  nut      

Pelargonic      Rose  geranium 

Laurie.     Laurus  nobili^ 

Myristic.     Xutine^s  .  . 

j         ^.        J.T  u  ,mc0o, 

-Denmic 

Melissic,                                                      .    . 

Colophony  or  resin  of  pine  etc 

C20  Hu  Os 

C40  Hgl  04 
C40  HSI  02 

C4o  H3i  OB 
C20  HIG  02 

C20  His  02 

very     little 
oxygen    re- 

Resin  of  Copaiva.     Copaifera 

Resin  of  Mastic.     Pistacia  lentiscus  

Resin  of  Copal.     Hymmaea,  etc..  
Camphor.     Laufus  camphora 

Borneo  camphor.     Dryobalanop^          .... 

III 

Oil  of  turpentine.     Pines  

CsH4 
a  H4 

CsH4 

Carbo-hy- 
drogens^ 
isomeric, 
destitute  of 
oxygen. 

Bergamot.     A  variety  of  orange,    

Black  pepper      Piper  niorurn 

Juniper  savine      Juniperus 

Parsley,  cubebs  etc                            

IP 

Quinine.     Peruvian  bark,  

C2S  H22  04  X2 

Cs4  His  Oo  N 
CGG  HIO  04  N4 

Oxygen  less 
than  hydro- 

Morphine.     Opium  poppy 

Theine.     Leaves  of  the  tea-plant  . 

1! 

Nicotine.     Tobacco  (Xicotiana),  

C20  Hl4  -ST2 
Cl6  Hl5  X 

Oxygen 
none. 

Coneine      Hemlock  (Conium) 

rt 
"= 

Oil  of  mustard      Sinapis  ni^ra,  

Ci6  H5  N  So 
CIG  H5  N  S2 
C6H5S 

Oxygen 
none. 

Oil  of  horse-radish.     Cochlearia,  
Oil  of  garlic      Allium  sativum 

. 

II 
1 

Protein.     Primordial  utricle,  

Cs6  H2s  Oio  N4  =Pr. 
lOPr  +  S 
10Pr-fP  +  S 
10Pr+P  +  2S 

Grluten      The  cereal  °rain^ 

Casein.     Leguminous  seeds,  

•Albumen      Many  seeds  

PART     THIRD, 

SYSTEMATIC    BOTANY. 
CHAPTEK    I. 

OF   THE   CLASSIFICATION   OF   PLANTS. 

858.  SYSTEMATIC  BOTANY  relates  to  the  arrangement  of  plants  into 
groups  and  families,  according  to  their  characters,  for  the  purpose  of 
facilitating  the  study  of  their  names,  affinities,  habits,  history,  proper- 
ties and  uses. 

859.  IN  THIS  DEPARTMENT,  the  principles  of  Structural  and  Physiological  Botany 
are  applied  and  brought  into  practical  use  in  the  discrimination  of  the  different 
groups,  and  the  limitation  of  their  characters.     Besides  the  immediate  uses  of  Sys- 
tematic Botany  in  the  determination  of  species  and  kinds,  as  above  stated,  it  ac- 
complishes 

860.  ANOTHER  PURPOSE  OF  STILL  HIGHER  IMPORT.      It  aids  us  in 
studying  plants  as  related  to  each  other,  and  constituting  one  great  and 
glorious  system.     It  shows  us  the  Almighty  Creator  at  once  employed 
in  the  minutest  details  and  upon  the  boundless  whole,  equally  attentive 
to  the  perfection  of  the  individual  in  itself,  and  to  the  completeness  of 
the  grand  system,  of  which  it  forms  a  necessary  part. 

861.  THE  SUBJECT  OP  GREAT  EXTENT.    The  study  of  classification  introduces  tho 
botanist  into  an  extensive  field  of  inquiiy.    The  subjects  of  his  research  meet  him  at 
every  step.     They  clothe  the  hill  and  plain,  the  mountain  and  valley.     They  spring 
up  in  the  hedges  and  by  the  way  side.     They  border  the  streams  and  lakes  and 
sprinkle  over  their  surfaces  ;  they  stand  assembled  in  vast  forests,  and  cover  with 
verdure  oven  the  depths  of  tho  ocean.    Now,  with  each  individual  of  this  vast  king- 
dom the  botanist  proposes  to  acquaint  himself,  so  that  he  shall  bo  ablo  readily  to 
recognize  its  name,  and  all  that  is  either  instructive,  interesting,  or  useful  concern- 
ing it,  whenever  and  wherever  it  is  presented  to  his  view. 

862.  THE  WRONG  WAY  TO  STUDY.     Now  it  is  obvious  that  if  the  student  should 
attempt  the  accomplishment  of  this  labor  by  studying  each  and  every  individual 
plant  in  detail,  whether  with  or  without  the  aid  of  books,  the  longest  life  would 
scarcely  suffice  him  for  making  a  good  beginning.     But  such  an  attempt  would  bo 
as  unnecessary  as  fruitless.     Tho  Author  of  Nature  has  grouped  these  myriads  of 
individuals  into 


OF   THE    CLASSIFICATION    OF    PLANTS.  165 

863.  SPECIES  (§  76).  When  He  called  plants  into  existence,  in 
their  specific  forms,  He  endowed  eaclj  with  the  power  of  perpetuating 
its  own  kind  and  no  other,  so  that  they  have  descended  to  us  distin- 
guished by  the  same  characters  and  properties  as  at  the  Beginning. 
When,  therefore,  the  student  has  formed  acquaintance  with  any  indivi- 
dual plant,  he  is  also  acquainted  with  all  other  individuals  belonging  to 
the  same  species. 

864  FOR  EXAMPLE:  a  single  plant  of  white  clover  is  a  true  representative  of  all 
the  millions  of  its  kind  that  grow  on  our  hills  and  in  our  meadows ;  and  a  single 
description  of  the  while  pine  will  answer  in  all  essential  points  for  every  individual 
tree  of  that  noble  species,  in  all  lands  where  it  is  found. 

865.  GENERA.     Although  the  species  ar<  !  from  each  other 
by  clear  and  definite  distinctions,  still  they  are  found  to  exhibit  also 
constant  affinities,  whereby  they  stand  associated    into  larger  groups 
called  genera  (§  80).     A  genus,  therefore,  is  an  assemblage  of  related 
species,  having  more  marked  affinities  with  each  other  in  general  struc- 
ture and  appearance  than  they  have  with  other  species. 

866.  FOR  EXAMPLE  :  the  white  clover  and  the  red  (Trifolium  repens  4HEI  T.  pra- 
tense)  are  universally  recognized  as  different  species,  but  of  the  same  gfejw":  and  a 
single  generic  description  of  one  plant  of  the  genus  Trifolium  will  convey  intelli- 
gence to  a  certain  extent  concerning  every  other  plant  belonging  to  its  150  species. 

867.  THUS  are  the  individual  plants  of  the  globe  grouped  by  descent  and  resem- 
blance, and  comprehended  under  species ;  and  the  species  associated  into  higher 
groups  called  genera.     "An  individual,"  says  Prof.  Forbes,    "is  a  positive  reality; 
a  species  is  a  relative  reality ;  a  genus  is  an  idea — but  an  idea  impressed  on  nature, 
and  not  arbitrarily  dependent  on  man's  conceptions.     An  individual  is  one :  a  spe- 
cies consists  of  many  resulting  from  one ;  a  genus  consists  of  more  or  fewer  of  these 
mantes  resulting  from  one  linked  together,  not  by  a  relationship  of  descent,  but  by 
an  affinity  dependent  on  a  Divine  idea." 

868.  ORDERS.     But  natural  affinities  do  not  end  here.     The  genera  are  yet  too 
numerous  for  the  ready  and  systematic  study  of  the  naturalist  lie,  therefore,  would 
generalize  still  further,  and  reduce  the  genera  to  still  fewer  and  broader  groups. 
On  comparing  the  genera  with  each  other,  he  finds  that  they  also  possess  in  com- 
mon certain  important  characters  which  are  of  a  more  general  nature  than  those 
which  distinguish  them  from  each  other.     By  these   general  characters  the  genera 
are  associated  into  orders. 

8G9.  FOR  EXAMPLE:  comparing  such  genera  as  the  mustard,  radish,  cabbage, 
cress,  wall-flower,  etc.,  it  is  seen  that,  while  they  differ  sufficiently  in  their  generic 
characters,  yet  they  all  have  certain  marked  resemblances,  in  their  didynamous 
stamens,  siliquous  fruit,  whereby  they  are  obviously  associated  into  the  same  order 
— the  Cruciferfc.  So,  also,  the  pines,  the  spruces,  the  cedars,  the  larches,  and  the 
cypress,  while  as  genera  they  are  obviously  distinct,  yet  ;;11  bear  r«/^.s  of  some 
form,  with  naked  seeds;  hence  they  are  naturally  grouped  into  one  Order — the 
Coniferas. 

870.  CLASSES.  In  like  manner  the  Orders,  by  characteristics  of  resemblance  still 
more  general,  are  associated  into  a  few  groups,  each  of  great  extent,  called  Classes, 
whether  natural  or  artificial 


1C6  THE    ARTIFICIAL    SYSTEM. 

871.  INTERMEDIATE  GROUPS,  formed  on  the  same  principles,  are  recognized  as 
Subgenera,  Suborders  or  Tribes,  and  Subclasses  or  Cohorts,  which  will  be  further 
noticed  and  described  in  another  place.* 

872.  METHODS   OF   CLASSIFICATION.      Two  independent  and  widely  different 
methods  of  classifying  the  genera  have  been  generally  approved,  the  Artificial  Sys- 
tem of  LinnEeus,  and  the  Natural  System  of  Jussieu.     The  former  is  founded  solely 
on  characters  relating  to  the  organs  of  fructification,  leaving  all  other  natural  affini- 
ties out  of  view.      The  latter,  on  the  contrary,'  takes  for  its  basis  all  those  natural 
affinities  and  resemblances  of  plants  whereby  Nature  herself  has  distinguished  them 
into  groups  and  families. 


CHAPTER     II. 

THE   ARTIFICIAL    SYSTEM. 

873.  A  SYSTEM  OF   CLASSIFICATION  IS  SAID  TO   BE   ARTIFICIAL  WHEN,  disregard- 
ing tlio  real  nature  of  the  subjects  classified,  it  rests  merely  on  some  obvious  exter- 
nal circumstance.     As  when  the  books  of  a  library  are  arranged  on  shelves  accord- 
ing to  their  size,  octavo,  duodecimo,  etc.,  or  as  when  the  words  in  a  language  are 
arranged  in  dictionaries,  alphabetically,  forming  thus  class  A,  class  B,  etc.     In  either 
case  the  books  or  the  words  constituting  any  group  may  be  quite  diverse  in  charac- 
tor,  having  nothing  in  common  except  their  octavo  size  or  initial  letter.     The  only 
use  of  such  an  arrangement  is  convenience  of  reference. 

874.  CARL  VON  LINNE  (Linnaeus)  of  Sweden,  born  in  1707,  everywhere  honored 
as  the  father  of  systematic  and  descriptive  botany,  was  the  author  of  that  renowned 
artificial  system  which  bears  his  name.     For  well  nigli  a  century  it  continued  in  al- 
most universal  use,  and  was  regarded  by  his  followers  with  far  more  respect  than  by 
Linnseus  himself,  who  designed  it  simply  as  an  index  or  clue  to  the  vegetable  king- 
dom.    For  ho  says  (Philosophia  Botanica)  "  Methodi  Naturalis  fragmenta  studiose 
inquirenda  sunt.     Prirnum  et  ultimum  hoc  in  Botanicis  desideratum  est." 

875.  CONSIDERED  AS  A  SYSTEM,  the  Linnsean  arrangement  totally  fails  to  exhibit 
those  true  relations  and  affinities  of  plants  which  render  the  knowledge  of  each  kind 
a  guide  to  that  of  the  others,  and  combine  all  into  one  consistent  whole.   It  can  not, 
therefore,  properly  be  regarded  as  a  system. 

876.  CONSIDERED  AS  AN  INDEX  or  key  to  the  vegetable  kiugdom,  it  is  by  no 
means  reliable,   for  the  stamens  and  styles  often  vary  numerically  in  the  same 
plant ;  and  secondly,  the  species  of  the  same  genus  often  vary  in  these  respects,  thus 
obliging  us  to  violate  even  specific  affinities ;  and  again,  when  the  stamens  or  pistils 
are  accidentally  marred,  or  lost,  or  immature,  the  index  must  also  foil  of  its  purpose. 
For  these  reasons  this  arrangement  has  fallen  into  disuse,  having  been  superseded 
by  the  Natural  System,  and  by  other  arrangements  better  adapted  to  the  present 
advanced  state  of  the  science.     Yet  being  intimately  connected  with  the  history  of 
i  >otany,  and  having  largely  contributed  to  its  early  progress,  its  outlines  at  least  de- 
mand a  record  in  our  pages. 

877.  THE  LINNSEAN  SYSTEM  proposes  to  arrange  all  the  known 
genera  of  plants  under  twenty-four  classes,  each  based  on  some  special 
character  derived  from  the  essential  floral  organs,  as  follows  : 


THE    ARTIFICIAL    SYSTEM.  167 

§  1.  THE  FIRST  THIRTEEN  CLASSES  comprehend  all  such  plants 
as  have  their  flowers  all  perfect,  their  stamens  unconnected  and 
and  of  equal  length,  or  at  least  neither  didynamous  nor  tetra- 
dynamous. 

Class        I.  MOXAXDRIA,— one  stamen  to  each. flower  (Saltwort,  etc.). 
Class       II.   DIANDRIA, — two  stamens  (Circcea,  Veronica). 
Class     ILL  TRIAXDRIA, — three  stamens  (Iris.     Nearly  all  the  Grasses'. 
Class     IT.  TETRAXDRIA, — four  stamens  (Galium,  Plantago). 
Class       V.  PEXTANDRIA, — five  stamens  (Vitis,  Conium). 
Class     VI.  HEXANDRIA, — six  stamens  (Lily,  Tulip,  Luzula). 
Class    VII.  HEPTAXDRIA, — seven  stamens  (Trientalis). 
Class  VIII.  OCTAXDRIA, — eight  stamens  (Erica,  (Enothera). 
Class      IX.  EXXEANDRIA, — nine  stamens  (Rheum,  Sassafras) 
Class       X.  DECAXDRIA, — ten  stamens  (Dianthus,  Rhododendron). 
Class     XI.  DODECANDRIA, — twelve  to  nineteen  stamens  (Asarum). 
Class    XII.  ICOSAXDRIA, — twenty  or  more  stamens,  perigynous  (Rosa). 
Class  XIII.  POLYAXDRIA, — twenty  or  more  stamens,  hypogynous  (Ranunculus, 

Papaver). 

§  2.  THE  NEXT  TWO   CLASSES   are  founded  on  the  relative 
length  of  the  stamens,  the  flowers  being  perfect  and  stamens 
generally  unconnected. 
Class     XIV.  DIDYXAMIA, — four  stamens,  two  long  and  two  short,  by  pairs,  as  in 

Antirrhinum,  Prunella. 
Class       XV.  TETRADYXAMIA, — six  stamens,  four  long  and  two  short,  as  in  tho 

wall-flower  and  the  Cruciferse  generally. 

§  3.  THE  NEXT  FOUR  CLASSES  are  determined  by  the  con- 
nection or  union  of  the  stamens. 
Class      XVI.  MOXADELPHIA, — stamens  united  by  their  filaments  into  one  set,  as 

in  Malva,  Geranium. 
Class  XVIL  DIADELPHIA,—  stamens  united  by  their  filaments  into   two  sets 

(Polygala,  pea,  Lathyrus).^ 
Class  XVIII.  POLYADELPHIA, — stamens  united  by  their  filaments  into  three  or 

more  sets  (Hypericum). 
Class     XIX.  SYXGEX-ESIA,  stamens  united  by  their  anthers,  as  in  the  Asters  and 

other  Composite. 

§  4.  THE  NEXT  CLASS  DEPENDS  for  its  character  upon  the  ad- 
hesion of  the  stamens  with  the  pistil. 
Class        XX.  GYXAXDRIA, — stamens  and  styles  united,  forming  a  column,  as  in 

Orchis,  Asclepias. 

§  5.  THE  NEXT  THREE  CLASSES  include  all  plants  with  diclin- 
•    ous  flowers,  some  with  pistils,  some  with  stamens  only. 
Class      XXI.  MOXCECIA, — staminate  and  pistillate  flowers,  both  upon  the  same 

plant  (Pinus,  Arum,  Hazel). 

Class    XXII.  DIOECIA, — staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  on  separate  plants  (Wil- 
low, Hemp,  Hop,  Smilax). 
Class  XXIII.  POLYGAMIA. — staminate,  pistillate  and  perfect  flowers  either  on  the 

same  or  on  different  plants,  as  in  Acer,  Acacia,  "Veratrum). 
§  6.  THE  LAST  CLASS  includes  flowerless  plants. 


168  THE    ARTIFICIAL   SYSTEM. 

Class  XXIV.  CRYPTOGAMIA, — plants  in  which  the  organs  of  fructification  aro 
concealed  (as  the  name  implies)  as  in  ferns,  mosses,  seaweeds.  . 

878.  THE  LINX.EAN  ORDERS.  Each  class  is  subdivided  into  orders,  and  these 
also  are  founded  on  some  condition  of  the  essential  organs.  The  orders  of  the  first 
thirteen  classes  are  determined  by  the  number  of  styles  (or  stigmas  when  the  style.* 
are  wanting)  in  each  flower. 

Order  1.  Monogynia,  1  style.       j     Order   7.  Heptagynia,  7  styles. 


Order  2.  Digynia,  2  styles. 

Order  3.  Trigyina,  3  styles. 

Order  4.  Tetragynia,  4  styles. 

Order  5.  Pentagynia,  5  styles. 


Order    8.  Octogynia,  8  styles. 

Order    9.  Enneagynia,  9  style.-. 

Order  10.  Decagynia,  10  styles. 

Order  11.  Dodecagynia,  12  styles. 


Order  G.  Hexagynia,  G  styles.      |     Order  12.  Polyginia,  more  than  12. 

879.  THE  ORDERS  OP  CLASS  XIV.  depend  upon  their  seed  vessels. 
Order  1.  Gymnosperrnia — Fruit  four  achenia,  as  in  the  Labiatse. 

Order  2.  Angiospermia — Fruit  inclosing  several  seeds. 

880.  THE  ORDERS  OF  CLASS  XY.  also  depend  on  the  fruit. 
Order  1.  Siliculosa — Fruit  a  sillicle,  as  in  pepper-grass. 

Order  2.  Siliquosa — Fruit  a  silique,  as  in  wall-flower. 

881.  THE  ORDERS  OP  CLASSES  XVI,  X  VII,  XVIII.  are  distinguished  by 
the  number  of  stamens  and  named  like  the  first  classes. 

Order  1.  Triandria — three  stamens  united  by  their  filaments. 
Order  2.  Pentandria — five  stamens  united  by  their  filaments. 

882.  THE  ORDERS  OP  CLASS  XIX.  are  five,  as  follows  : 
Order  1.  Equalis— Florets  of  the  head  all  perfect  ( ?  )• 

Order  2.  Superflua — Florets  of  the  disk  $ ,  of  the  ray  $  . 
Order  3.  Frustranea — Florets  of  the  disk  $  ,  ray  abortive. 
Order  4.  Necessaria — Florets  of  the  disk  $ ,  of  the  ray   ?. 
Order  5.  Segregata — Each  floret  with  a  separate  involucre. 

883.  THE  ORDERS  OP  CLASSES  XX.,  XXL,  XXII.  distinguished  in  the  same 
way  as  the  first  thirteen,  the  XVI.,  XVII.,  XVIII.  classes  ;  as 

Order  1.  Monandria — one  stamen.     Order  2.  Diandria — two  stamens.     Order  3.  Tri- 
andria— three  stamens,  etc. 

884.  THE  ORDERS  OP  CLASS  .XXIII.  are  founded  on  the  position  of  the 
flowers  relatively,  thus : 

Order  1.  Mouoecia — Flowers  $  ,  £,  ?  on  the  same  plant  (Acacia). 

Order  2.  Dioecia — Flowers  £  on  one  plant,  $ ,  ?  ,  on  another  (Charnerops). 

Order  3.  Trioecia — Flowers  $  ,  £,  and  ?  ,  each  on  separate  plants. 

885.  THE  ORDERS  OP  CLASS  XXIV.  are  the  same  as  in  the  Natural  Sys- 
tem, and  can  not  be  defined  by  a  single  character. 


Order  1.  Felices,  ferns. 
Order  2.  Musci,  mosses. 
Order  3.  Hepaticse,  liverworts. 


Order  4.  Lichens,  lichens. 
Order  5.  Fungi,  mushrooms. 
Order  6.  Algae,  seaweeds. 


THE    NATURAL   SYSTEM.  169 

CHAPTER    III. 

THE     NATURAL      SYSTEM. 

886.  THE  AIM  OF  THE  NATURAL  SYSTEM  is  to  associate  plants  into 
groups  and  families  according  to  their  true  natural  likenesses  and  af- 
finities, and  thus  to  make  an  expression,  so  far  as  possible,  of  the  Di- 
vine plan  in  the  System  of  Nature. 

887.  IT  DIFFERS  FROM  THE  ARTIFICIAL  arrangement :  while  that  em- 
ploys only  a  single  character  in  classification,  the  natural  system  regards 
the  total  organization,  and  seizes  upon  every  character  wherein  plants 
agree  or  disagree,  and  forms  her  associations  only  upon  the  principle  of 
natural  affinity.     Hence  each  member  of  any  natural  group  resembles 
the  others,  and  a  fair  description  of  one  will  serve,  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  for  all  the  rest. 

888.  THE  SPECIES  AND  GENERA  are  formed  on  this  principle  of  clas- 
sification, as  above  stated,  and  are  truly  natural  associations.     Indi- 
viduals altogether  similar,  cast  as  it  were  in  the  same  mold,  constitute 
a  species.     Species  agreeing  in  nearly  all  respects  and  differing  but  in 
few  constitute  a  genus.     Thence  the   genera,  associated  by  their  re- 
maining affinities  into  groups  of  few  or  many,  by  this  same  method  are 
organized  into  Natural  Orders  and  other  departments  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom. 

889.  RELATIVE    VALUE    OF    CHARACTERS.       Although    the    natural 
method  employs  every  character,  yet  it  does  not  regard   all  of  equal 
value  or  importance.     As  a  rule,  the  higher  the  physiological  import- 
ance of  any  organ,  the  higher  will  be  the  value  of  the  characters  which 
it  affords. 

890.  BECAUSE,  (1)  the  less  will  it  be  subject  to  Vcariation,  and  (2)  the  more  gen- 
eral in  respect  to  other  organs  will  be  the  resemblance  of  those  plants  which  agree 
in  respect  to  that  organ.     Thus,  first  in  value  are  those  characters  drawn  from  tho 
cellular  tissue ;  second,  from  the  vessels,  the  stomata,  the  embryo,  and  albumen ; 
third,  from  the  axis  and  leaves,  the  stamens,  pistils,  and  fruit ;  fourth,  from  tho  pe- 
rianth ;  fifth,  from  the  inflorescence  and  bracts. 

891.  HISTORY  OP  THE  NATURAL  METHOD.     Its  foundation  was  first  laid  1682, 
by  John  Ray,  of  England.    He  separated  the  Flowering  from  the  Plowerless  plants, 
and  divided  the  former  into  Dicotyledons  and  Monocotyledons.     Linna3us,   about  50 
years  later,  constructed  a  fragment  of  the  system,  consisting  of  the  names  of  67 
natural  orders,  without  descriptions.    But  to  Antoine  do  Jussieu  is  due  the  honor  of 
the  final  establishment  of  this  Method  upon  tho  true  principles  of  natural  affinity. 
He  arranged  the  genera  then  known  (A.  D.  17SO)  into  100  natural  orders,  defining 
them  with  so  much  exactness,  that  nearly  all  have  withstood  the  test  of  time  ;  and 
have  been  adopted  into  our  present  systems.     Robert  Brown  contributed  largely  to 
its  completion  and  introduction  into  England,  by  the  publication  of  his  Flora  of 


170  THE   NATURAL    SYSTEM. 

New  Holland  in  1810;  and  finally  De  Candolle,  by  the  publication  of  Lis  great 
work  "  Prodromus  Systematis  Naturalis  Eegni  Vegetabilis",  commenced  iii  181G, 
and  designed  as  the  universal  Flora,  brought  this  system  into  general  use. 

892.  MANY  SYSTEMS.     But  the  aim  of  the  natural  system  as  an  expression  of  the 
Divine  Order  of  Nature  is  not  yet  consummated.     The  lower  divisions  of  the  System 
— species,  genera,  and  orders, — are  well  denned  and  settled  as  truly  natural  groups. 
The  grand  divisions  also, — Cryptogamia,    Phenogamous  Exogens  and   Endogen^ 
(§  897). — are  fully  established.     But  in  the  midst,  between  these  extremes,  there  is 
a  region  of  uncertainty,  respecting  the  arrangement  of  the  orders  into  groups  sub- 
ordinate to  the  grand  divisions,  viz.,  into  Classes  and  Subclasses.     In  this  matter, 
authors  have  maintained  different  views,  and  proposed  a  variety  of  systems. 

893.  THE  DIFFICULTY  lies  in  this.     Wo  attempt  necessarily  a  linear  arrangement 
of  the  orders,  placing  one  after  another  in  succession,  thus  regarding  tho  affinities  of 
each  in  two  directions  only,  viz.,  toward  the  preceding  and  the  succeeding ;  whereas 
each  order  should  be  regarded  as  a  center  of  affinities;  being  related  immediately  to 
all  others  lying  around  it,  as  a  province  on  a  geographical  map  is  related  equally  to 
att  those  which  touch  upon  its  borders.    Hence  any  linear  arrangement  of  the  orders 
must  be  in  some  degree  artificial. 

894.  ONE  NATURAL  SYSTEM.     Although  there  be  but  one  truly  na- 
tural system,  yet  while  any  portion  of  it  remains  imperfectly  understood, 
so  far  authors  may  be  expected  to  hold  different  views,  and  to  attempt 
by  different  methods  to  express  that  true  system.     Still  the  discrepan- 
cies observed  in  the  several  "  Natural  Systems,"  proposed  by  different 
writers,  are  slight  compared  with  the  number  and  importance  of  the 
principles  now  common  to  them  all  and  universally  admitted. 

895.  THE  FIRST  AND  HIGHEST  DIVISION  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom, 
viz.,  into  the  Phaenogamia  or  Flowering  Plants,  and  the  Cryptogamia 
or  Flowerless  Plants,  has  already  been  noticed  and  defined.     These 
grand  divisions,  or  sub-kingdoms,  lie  at  the  foundation  of  both  the  sys- 
tems of  Linnaeus  and  of  Jussieu,  and  have  in  substance  been  adopted  by 
every  subsequent  author.     It  is  a  division  founded  in  nature,  that  is, 
marked  by  nature  herself,  for 

The  PELENOGAMIA  (fyaivu,  to  appear,  ya^of,  nuptials), 

a,  Consist  of  a  regular  axis  of  growth  with  leafy  appendages, 
&,  They  possess  a  woody  and  spiro-vascular  structure, 

c,  They  develop  stamens  and  pistils  constituting  flowers. 

d,  They  produce  seeds  containing  an  embryo.     On  the  other  hand 
The  CRYPTOGAMIA  (/cpvTr-cj,  to  conceal,  ya/jo.c). 

«,  Are  generally  destitute  of  a  regular  axis  and  of  true  leaves, 
&,  They  possess  mostly  a  cellular  structure  only, 

c,  They  do  not  develop  true  flowers, 

d,  They  produce  spores  having  no  embryo. 

896.  NATURAL  DIVISIONS  INDEFINITE.  The  above  diagnosis  does  not  mark  the 
absolute  limits  between  the  two  sub-kingdoms,  for  the  higher  Cryptogamia,  as  the 
mosses  and  ferns,  give  indications  of  approach  to  the  Phasnogamia,  both  in  form  and 
structure,  while  the  lower  Phsenogamia  can  scarcely  be  said  to  produce  flowers. 
And  universally,  so  gradual  is  the  transition  from  group  to  group,  that  it  is  difficult 


THE    NATUHAL    SYSTEM.  I7l 

or  impossible  to  fix  upon  characters  so  definite  as  to  circumscribe  completely  any 
one  group,  while  at  the  same  time  they  exclude  every  member  of  the  surrounding 
allied  groups. 

897.  SECOND  DIVISION.     The  Flowering  plants  are  next  resolved  into 
two  great  provinces,  indubitably  marked  by  nature's  own  hand,  and  em- 
ployed in  every  natural  method.     The  following  is  their  diagnosis. 

EXOGEN.E  (e^a),  without,  ycvvaw,  to  generate),  or  DICOTYLEDONOUS  PLANTS. 
a,  Growing  by  layers  external  to  the  wood,  internal  to  the  bark, 
6,  Leaves  net-veined, 

c,  Flowers  4  or  5-parted,  rarely  3-parted, 

d,  Seeds  with  two  or  more  cotyledons,  and 

e,  The  radicle  producing  an  axial  root. 

ENDOGEX.E,  (evfav,  within,  yevvdu),  or  MOXOCOTYLEDONOUS  PLANTS. 
a,  Growing  by  scattered  internal  wood-bundles, 
&,  Leaves  parallel-veined, 
c,  Flowers  very  generally  3-parted, 
«T,  Seeds  with  one  cotyledon,  and 
c,  The  radicle  never  producing  an  axial  root. 

898.  THIRD  DIVISION; — CLASSES.     The  provinces  are  next  broken 
into  classes — groups  of  the  third  rank  in  extent.     Two  are  constituted 
of  the  Exogens,  viz. : 

AXGIOSPERMJE  (ayy'Eios,  a  vessel,  a-nippa,  seed)  (oak,  rose). 

a,  Flowers  more  generally  perfect  or  complete, 

6,  Pistils  complete,  inclosing  the  ovules, 

c,  Seeds  inclosed  in  a  pericarp. 

rf,  Embryo  with  only  two  cotyledons/ 
GYMXOSPERM.E  (/ly/t'of,  naked,  oxepua)  (pine,  yew). 

«,  Flowers  imperfect  and  incomplete, 

£>,  Pistils  scale-like,  without  a  stigma, 

c.  Seeds  truly  naked,  that  is,  destitute  of  a  pericarp, 

d,  Embryo  mostly  with  several  whorled  cotyledons. 
Two  classes  are  formed  from  the  Endogens,  viz. : 

PETALIFERJ3  (TTeraZov,  petal,  titpu.  to  bear). 

Plants  of  the  endogenous  structure,  with  flowers  constructed  oa  the  usual 
plan ;  perianth  of  one  or  more  whorls  of  petaloid  organs,  or  wanting  (lily, 
Orchis,  rush). 
GLUMIFER^E  (gluma,  husk,  fero,  to  bear). 

Plants  of  the  endogenous  structure,  the  flowers  invested  with  an  im- 
bricated perianth  of  glumes,  instead  of  petals  and  sepals  (grasses,  grains, 
sedges). 

899.  DIVISIONS    OF  THE  CRVPTOGAMIA.     This  sub-kingdom    is   na- 
turally divided  into  two   provinces,  the   Acrogens,  and  Thallogens, — 
terms  founded  upon  their  mode  of  vegetation.     The  former  include 
those  tribes  which  make  some  approximation  towards  the  Phsenogamia, 
the  latter  include  the  lowest  tribes  in  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

ACROGEX.E  (unpov,  the  summit,  •yevvdu). 

Flowerless  plants  having  a  regular  stem  or  axis,  which  grows  by  the  ex- 
tension of  the  apex  only,  without  increasing  at  all  in  diameter,  generally 


172  THE   NATURAL    SYSTEM. 

with  leaves,  and  composed  of  cellular  tissue  and  scalariform  ducts  (Ferns, 
mosses,  club-mosses,  horsetails,  etc.) 
THALLOGEN.<E  (0aAAo£,  green  branch,  yevvdu)). 

Flowerless  plants  producing  in  vegetation  a  thallus,  with  no  distinction 
of  stem  and  leaf,  or  root,  and  composed  of  cellular  tissue  only  (Lichens, 
fungi,  etc.) 

900.  CLASSES  OF  THE  FLOWERLESS  PLANTS.  For  the  sake  of  analogy 
and  an  advantageous  comparison  with  the  Phaenogams,  we  may  also 
regard  these  two  provinces  of  the  Cryptogams  in  the  light  of  Classes 
founded  upon  their  different  modes  of  fruitbearing.  Thus  the  Aero- 
gens  constitute  the  class 

ANGIOSPOR.-E  (ayyeios,  OTTOpu). 

Acrogenous  plants,  producing  their  spores  in  sporangia  (vessels)  which 
burst  when  the  spores  are  mature. 
GrYMNOSPORJB  (yvftvbe,  OTropa). 

Thallogenous  plants  reproduced  by  spores,  which  are  produced  in  parent 
cells,  either  forming  a  part  of  the  vegetating  thallus,  or  growing  upon  tho 
surface  of  some  definite  region  of  the  thallus. 

901.  FOURTH  DIVISION — COHORTS.     The  six  classes,  as  above  constituted,  aro 
still  each  of  great  extent, — too  great  for  the  comprehension  of  the  learner,  or  prac- 
tical use.     A  further  division  is  therefore  necessary.     To  effect  this  on  strictly 
natural   principles  botanists   have  labored   hitherto   in  vain.      The  truth  is,  the 
members  of  these  several  classes  are  united  by  affinities  so  equable  as  to  render 
it  impossible  to  subdivide,  except  by  distinctions  more    or   less    arbitrary.      So 
adjacent  territories,  where  rivers  or  other  natural  boundaries  are  wanting,  must  bo 
separated  by  artificial  lines. 

902.  THE  AXGIOSPERMS  ARE  DIVIDED  BY  DE  CAXDOLLE,  in  his  great  descriptive- 
work  "  Prodromus "  Systematis  Naturalis  Regni  Yegetabilis"  into  four  sub-classes 
founded  upon  the  conditions  of  the  floral  envelops,  viz.  : 

1.  Thalamiflorai,  petals  distinct,  and  (with  the  stamens)  hypogynous. 

2.  Galyciflorce,  petals  (with  the  stamens)  perigynous. 

3.  Corottiftorce,  petals  united,  hypogynous,  stamens  epipetalous. 

4.  Monochla?nydeos,  petals  wanting. 

903.  THE  PLAN  OF  ENDLICHER  in  his  "  Genera  Plantarum"  is  more 
simple  and  convenient,  and  has  been  followed   by  American  writers 
generally.     He  separates  the  Angiospermae  into  three  "  cohorts,"  thus  : 

1.  Dialypetalce  (dcahvu,   to  dissolve).      Exogenous  plants,  having  both  calyx 
and  corolla,  the  latter  composed  of  distinct  petals  (polypetalous),  sometimes 
slightly  cohering  by  the  base  of  the  stamens,  rarely  abortive. 

2.  Gamopetalce  (yapo?,   union).      Exogenous  plants,   having   both  calyx  and 
corolla,  the  latter  composed  of  petals  more  or  less  united. 

3.  Apetdke  (a,   privative).      Exogenous  plants  with  flowers    having  a  calyx 
only,  or  neither  calyx  nor  corolla  (achlaniydeous). 

904.  THE  CLASS  PETALIFER^E    may  be  conveniently  separated   into 
two  cohorts,  as  follows. 

1.  Spadiciflom.     Endogenous  plants  with  flowers  having  no  perianth,  or  a 
scaly  one,  and  borne  on  a  thickened  spadix,  which  is  often  enveloped  in  a 


THE    NATURAL    SYSTEM.  173 

2.  Floridece.     Endogenous  plants  with  the  flowers  usually  perfect  and  com- 
plete, the  perianth  double,  3 -parted,  the  outer  often  and  sometimes  both  green. 

905.  THE    CLASS    GLUMIFER.E   is  equivalent  to  the  cohort   Grami- 
noidece,  including  the  sedges,  grains,  and  grasses — a  truly  natural  as- 
semblage. 

906.  THE  CLASS  ANGIOSPORA    consists  of  three  cohorts  defined  as 
follows. 

1.  Sporogamia.     Angiosporous  plants,  producing  spores  in  which,  when  ger- 
minating,  anthiridial  cells   and    archegonal,  or   ovulary  bodies,  are   found 
(Lycopodiaceaa,  Isoetacese,  Marsileaceae). 

2.  Thallogamia.     Angiosporous  plants  producing  spores  of  one  kind  in  spor- 
anges  on  the  surface  of  the  leaf  or  stem,   the  spore  germinating  into  a 
green  prothallus  (629)  on  which  are  developed  antheridia  and  archegonia, 
the  latter  giving  origin  to  a  leafy  embryo  (Equisetaceae,  Filices). 

3.  Axogamia.     Angiosporous  plants  producing  antheridia  and  archegonia  in 
the  axils  of  the  leaves  or  in  buds,  the  fertilized  archegonia  giving  birth  to 
sporanges  filled  with  spores,  all  reproducing  the  plant  (Mosses,  Hepaticse, 
Characea?). 

907.  THE  CLASS  GYMNOSPOR.E  consists  of  three  cohorts,  viz. : 

1.  Aeropliyta.     Thallogens  growing  and  fructifying  in  the  air,  reproduced  by 
spores  formed  in  asci,  and  by  green  gonidia-  formed  in  the  medullary  layer 
of  the  thallus  (Lichens). 

2.  Hysterophyta.      Thallogens  growing  in  or  on  decaying  organic  substances 
and  fructifying  in  the  open  air,   destitute  of  chlorophylle  and  starch,   re- 
produced by  spores  formed  in  asci,  by  archegonal  spores  and  by  gonidea 
(Fungi). 

3.  Hydrophyte,.      Thallogens  with  a  branching  or  foliaccous  thallus;    mem- 
branous, gelatinous,  or  cartilaginous  hi  texture,   containing  either   chloro- 
phylle or  a  red  coloring  matter  and  often  starch  grains ;  growing  in  water, 
salt  or  fresh,  or  in  moist  substances  in  damp  air  (Algae). 

908.  THE  FOLLOWING}  SYNOPTICAL  ARRANGEMENT  of  the  above  divisions  and  sub- 
divisions will  exhibit  at  a  glance  the  relative  position  and  mutual  relations  of  each. 

THE    VEGETABLE   KINGDOM. 

The  sub-kingdom,  PH^EXOGAMIA,  or  FLOWERING  PLANTS.       , 
Province  1st.     Exogence,  or  Dicotyledons. 
Class  I.  Angiosperma?. 

Cohort  1.  Dialypetalce,  or  Polypetalae. 
Cohort  2.  Gamopetalse,  or  Monopetalse. 
Cohort  3.  Apetalse,  or  Monochamydeae. 
Class  II.  Gymnospermte. 

Cohort  4.  Conoidere. 

Province  2.  Endogence,  or  Monocotyledons. 
Class  III.  Petalifera,  or  Algumacea?. 
Cohort  5.  Spadiciflorse  (Aroideae,  etc.) 


174  NOMENCLATURE. BOTANICAL    ANALYSIS. 

Cohort  6.  Floridese  (Liliaceas,  etc.). 
Class  IV.  Glumiferas,  or  Glumaccae. 

Cohort  7.  Graminoidese  (Sedges,  grasses). 
The  sub  kingdom  CRYPTOGAMIA,  or  FLOWERLESS  PLANTS. 
Province  0.  Acrogence. 
Class  Y.  Angiosporse. 

Cohort  8.  Sporogamia  (Marsilleaceflo,  Lycopodiaceae). 
Cohort  9.  Thallogamia  (Filices,  etc.). 
Cohort  10.  Axogamia  (Mosses  and  Hepaticse). 
Province  4.   Thallogence. 
Class  VI.  Gymnosporse. 

Cohort  11.  Aerophyta  (Lichens). 
Cohort  12.  Hysterophyta  (Fungi). 
Cohort  13.  Hydrophyta  (Algse). 


CHAPTER   IV. 

§  1.      NOMENCLATURE. — BOTANICAL   ANALYSIS. 

909.  THE  NAMES  OF  THE  ORDERS  are  Latin  adjectives  (feminine,  plural,  to  agree 
with  plantce,  plants,  understood),  usually  derived  from  the  name  of  the  most  promi- 
nent, or  leading  genus,  in  each,  by  changing  or  prolonging1  the  termination  into 
acece,  as  Rosacece,  the  rose  tribe,  Papaveracece,  the  poppy  tribe,  from  Rosa  and  Pa- 
paver.     Earlier  names,  however,  derived  from  some  leading  character  in  the  order, 
and  with  various  terminations,  are  still  retained.     Thus,  Compositce,  with  compound 
flowers ;  Labiatce.,  with  labiate  flowers. 

910.  GENERIC  NAMES  are  Latin  substantives,  arbitrarily  formed,  often  from  somo 
medicinal  virtue,  either  supposed  or  real,  or  from  some  obvious  character  of  the 
genus ;  sometimes  from  the  native  country  of  the  plants,  or  from  the  name  of  somo 
distinguished  botanist,  or  patron  of  botany,  to  whom  the  genus  is  thus  said  to  bo 
dedicated.     Also  the  ancient  classic  names,  either  Latin  or  Greek,  are  often  retained. 
Examples  of  all  these  modes  of  construction  will  be  hereafter  seen. 

911.  SPECIFIC  NAMES  are  Latin  adjectives,  singular  number,  and  agreeing  in  gen- 
der with  the  name  of  the  genus  to  which  they  belong.     They  are  mostly  founded 
upon   some  distinctive    character  of  the  species;    as   Gerardia  glauca,  glaucous- 
stemmed  Gerardia ;    G.  purpurea,  purple-flowered  Gerardia ;   G.  tenui/olia,  slender- 
leaved  Gerardia.     Frequently  the  species  is  named  after  some  other  genus,  which, 
in  some  respect,  it  resembles;  as  Gerardia  quercifolia,  oak-leaved  Gerardia.     G. 
delpUinifolia,  larkspur-leaved  Gerardia. 

912.  COMMEMORATIVE  SPECIFIC  NAMES.     SPECIES,  .like  genera,  are  also  some- 
times named  in  commemoration  of  distinguished  persons.     The  rules  given  by  Lind- 
ley,  for  the  construction  of  such  names,  are,  1st.  If  the  person  is  the  discoverer,  the 
specific  name  is  a  substantive   in  the  genitive  case,  singular  number ;  as,  Lobelia 
Kalmii,  Kami's  Lobelia;  Pinus  Fraseri,  Eraser's  pine.     2d.  If  the  name  is  merely 
•  conferred  in  honor  of  the  person  to  whom  it  is  dedicated,  it  is  an  adjective  ending 


NOMENCLATURE. BOTANICAL   ANALYSIS.  175 

in  nus,  na,  num;  as  .Erica  Linneana,   Linnaeus'   heath;   Rosa  Lawrenciana,  Mis3 
Lawrence's  rose. 

913.  RULES  FOR  THE  USE  OP  CAPITALS.    The  names  of  the  order,  the  sub-order 
or  tribe,  and  of  the  genus  should  always  commence  with  a  capital  letter.    The 
name  of  the  species  should  never  commence  with  a  capital  except  in  the  following 
cases;  (1.)  when  it  is  derived  from  the  name  of  a  person  or  of  a  country,  as  Phlox 
Drummondii,  Aquilegia  Canadensis ;  (2.)  when  it  is  a  substantive,  as  Delphinium 
Consolida. 

914.  SYNONYMS.     Very  frequently,  the  same  species  has  been  described  by  differ- 
ent (or  even  by  the  same)  authors,  under  different  names.     In  such  cases  it  becomes 
a  question,  often  of  difficult  solution,  which  name  is  to  be  adopted.     Obviously,  the 
prior  name,  that  is,  the  original  one,  if  it  can  be  ascertained,  is  entitled  to  the  most 
respect ;  and  it  is  a  rule  with  botanists  to  adopt  this  name,  unless  it  had  been  pre- 
viously occupied,  or  be  strongly  objectionable  on  some  other  account.     All  other 
names  are  synonyms. 

915.  BOTANICAL  ANALYSIS.     The  application  of  the  rules  of  Systematic 
Botany  to  the  natural  plant,  in  order  to  ascertain  its  affinities,  place,  name,  &c.,  is 
called  botanical  analysis.     This  exercise,  whether  for  pleasure  or  improvement,  is  the 
constant  pursuit  of  the  practical  botanist.    A  moro  accurate  and  useful  knowledge 
of  a  plant  can  be  acquired  in  a  few  minutes,  by  a  careful  examination  of  the  living 
specimen,  or  even  of  the  dried,  than  by  committing  to  memory  the  most  elaborate 
description -found  in  books. 

916.  During  the  flowering  months,  the  learner  will  often  in  his  walks  meet  with 
plants  in  blossom,  with  which  he  is  yet  unacquainted.     And  he  who  is  duly  inter- 
ested ia  his  pursuit,  will  by  no  means  fail  to  seize  and  analyze  each  specimen  while 
the  short  hour  of  its  bloom  may  last,  and  to  store  his  memory  with  the  knowledge 
of  its  names,  habits,  and  uses.     Thus,  in  a  few  seasons,  or  even  in  one,  he  will  have 
grown  familiar  with  nearly,  or  quite,  every  species  of  plants  in  his  vicinity. 

917.  Let  us  suppose  the  pupil  in  possession  of  a  specimen  of  an  unknown  plant 
in  full  blossom.     In  order  to  study  it  by  the  aid  of  authors,  a  point  immediately 
requisite  is  its  name.    Now,  having  learned"  by  examination  the  organic  and  physi- 
ological structure  of  the  flower,  leaves,  stem,  etc.,  the  experienced  botanist,  who 
has  at  his  command  the  characters  of  all  the  Natural  Orders,  will  at  once  determine 
to  which  of  them  tho  plant  belongs. 

918.  But  tfiis  is  not  to  be  expected  of  the  pupil  who  is  supposed  to  bo  yet,  in  a 
measure,  unacquainted  with  the  characters  of  the  orders.     He  must  be  guided  to 
the  place  which  his  specimen  holds  in  the  classification,  by  a  longer  course  of  inquiry 
and  comparison.     For  the  assistance  of  the  learner,  therefore,  and  for  the  conve- 
nience of  all,  we  arc  happy  to  be  able  to  add  a  full  series  of  ANALYTICAL  TABLES, 
which,  with  proper  use,  will  seldom  fail  of  conducting  them  almost  immediately  to 
the  object  of  their  search. 

919.  THE  ANALYTICAL  TABLES  which  accompany  the  present  edition  of  our  Flora,. 
are  in  many  respects  novel  in  form,  and  remarkable,  at  least,  for  their  simplicity. 
A  dichotomal  division,  that  is,  of  the  whole  into  two  parts,  is  the  principle  on  which 
they  are  constructed ;  and  since  those  divisions  are,  each,  characterized  mainly  by  a. 
single  character,  the  tables  are  technically  artificial     But  they  are  also  natural  to  a 
considerable  extent,  at  least  so  far  as  the  divisions  and  sections  which  they  make 
are  in  accordance  with  the  natural  method.     "We  subjoin  a  few  examples  of  the  analy- 
sis of  particular  species  by  the  aid  of  these  tables.     If  the  exercise  be  conducted  in. 
the  class-room,  the  successive  steps  in  the  process  (indicated  by  the  numbers,  1,  2, 
3,  &a,  below)  may  be  assigned,  ia  order,  to  each  pupil  in  the  class. 


176  ANALYSIS    OF    A    POLYPETALOUS   HERB. 

ANALYSIS   OP   A   POLYPETALOUS   HERB. 

920.  To  DETERMINE  THE  COHORT.    A  good  specimen  of  a  little  yellow-flowered 
herbaceous  plant,  common  in  the  grassy  fields  of  cool  regions,  is  supposed  to  be  now 
in  the  hands  of  each  pupil  of  the  class.     (1.)  The  first  pupil,  reading  (if  necessary) 
the  characteristic  of  each  sub-kingdom,  pronounces  the  plant  one  of  the  Phseno- 
gamia,  and  refers  the  next  pupil  to  the  Provinces,  1  or  2. 

(2.)  The  next  reads  the  characters  of  those  Provinces,  and  comparing  the  speci- 
men (which  has  net-veined  leaves  and  b-merous  flowers),  concludes  that  it  is  an  Exo- 
gen.  Refer  next  to  the  Classes,  1  or  2. 

(3.)  "  Flowers  with  stigmas,  and  pistils,  &c. 

"  Flowers  with  open  scales  instead  of  pistils  (or  no  pistils  at  all),"  &c.  Our 
plant  has  pistils,  &c., .  and  is  (moreover,  not  a  pine,  spruce  or  cedar).  It  is,  there- 
fore an  Angiosperm.  Refer  next  to  Cohort  1,  2,  or  3. 

(4.)  "Corolla  with  distinct  petals." — This  characterizes  our  plant,  and  it  is  pro- 
nounced "  Polypetalous."  Refer  then  to  (A). 

921.  To  DETERMINE  THE  NATURAL  ORDER,  tho  (5th)  pupil  reads  the  first  alterna- 
tive, or  triplet,  noted  by  a  star  (*),  and  comparing  his  plant,  finds  it  to  correspond 
with  the  first  line,  for  it  is  an  "herb  with  alternate  leaves."     Pass  now  to  (11). 

(G.)  "  Flowers  regular  or  nearly  so.     Fruit  never  a  legume." 

"  Flowers  irregular,"  &c.    The  flower  is  regular.     Pass  to  (13). 

Again  a  pupil  reads : — 

(7.)  "  Stamens  3 — 10  times  as  many  as  tho  petals." 

"  Stamens  few  and  definite." — The  stamens  are  many.  Pass  to  (15).  Tho 
next  (8)  pupil  reads,  compares,  and  determines  that  the  stamens  are  "  perigynous  on 
the  base  of  the  calyx,"  and  announces  the  letter  (d)  as  the  reference  to  the  next 
alternative.  (9.)  Next,  the  pupil  reads  and  compares  his  specimen  with  the  triplet 
(cl),  and  concludes  that  the  sepals  are  5.  Refer  then  to  the  dash  ( — ).  (10.)  Lastly- 
the  pupil  determines  that  the  sepals  are  iaibricated  in  the  bud,  and  consequently 
belongs  to  the  Nat.  Ord.  ROSACEJE. 

922.  To  DETERMINE  THE  GENUS.    After  a  careful  comparison  of  hi s  specimens  with 
the  brief  diagnosis  of  the  Rosoworts  (page  325),  in  order  to  verify  the  analysis  thus 
far  (11),  the  learner  consults  the  Table  of  the  Genera,  and  inquires  the  character  of 
the  carpels,  styles,  &c.,  in  order  to  learn  the  suborder  of  the  plant.     As  the  carpels 
are  many,  and  free,  he  concludes  that  it  is  of  the  Suborder  Roseau.     Next  learn  its 
tribe.     (12.)  As  the   "carpels  are  1-seeded  in  an  open  calyx,"  we  infer  that  its 
tribe  is  Kosidae.     Refer  to  f.     (13.)  Are  the  "styles  persistent,"  etc.,  or  "deciduous," 
etc.  ?     They  are  deciduous ;    refer  now  to  tho  dash  ( — ).     (14.)  Inquire,   "  Calyx 
bractless?"  or  "calyx  bracteolate?"     As  tho  calyx  is  bracteolate  (having  five  littlo 
leaves  close  to  the  calyx  beneath,  as  if  a  double  calyx),  we  refer  again  to  the  dash 
( — ).      (is.)  "Receptacle  pulpy"    or    "spongy,"    or    "dry?"     The  latter  is  true, 
carrying  us  to  the  next  dash  ( — ).     (16).  Finally,  are  tho  "stamens    QD,"  or  "5?" 
They  are  numerous,  and  POTENTILL.V  is  ths  genus  sought. 

923.  To  DETERMINE  THE  SPECIES.     Having  compared  the  generic  description  of  Po- 
tentilla  with  our  specimens,  and  assured  ourselves  of  its  agreement  thereto,  (It.)  we 
next  inquire,  are  tho   "leaves  palmately  3-foliolate,"  "palmately  5-foliolate,"  or 
"pinnate?"     They  are  palmately  3-foliolate,  and  our  plant  is  now  referable  to  the 
1st,  2d,  or  3d  species.     (18.)  Lastly,  the  italicized  words  alone  in  the  description  of 
these  species,  at  once  mark  our  plant  as  belonging  to  the  first,  for  it  is  hirsute,  and 
.the  sepals  exceed  the  petals.    The  name  is,  therefore,  P.  NORVEGICA. 


ANALYSIS    OP    AN    APETALOUS    HERB.  177 

ANALYSIS    OF    A   POL YPET ALDUS    SHRUB. 

924.  Again,  suppose  the  class  of  pupils  in  botany  to  be  furnished  with  specimens 
of  a  certain  flowering  shrub.     The  cohort  of  the  plant  is  ascertained,  by  the  process 
already  noticed,  to  be  Dialypetala?,  the  Polypetalous  flowers  (A),  and  we  refer  to 
the  (*),  reading: — 

"  *  Herbs  with  the  leaves  alternate  or  all  radical. 

';  *  Herbs  with  the  leaves  opposite  on  the  stem. 

"  *  Shrubs,  trees  or  undershrubs." — It  is  decided  that  our  plant  is  a  shrub,  and 
referred  to  the  dash  ( — ).  "\Ye  next  read : — 

"  —  Flowers  regular  or  nearly  so. 

"  —  Flowers  irregular  (or  the  fruit  a  legume)." — The  flowers  are  quite  regular, 
and  referred  to  (2).  We  then  read : — 

"  Polyandrous,"  &c.  "Oligandrous,"  &c. — The  stamens  are  numerous,  and  the 
plant  referred  to  (3),  where  we  again  read: — 

"  Leaves  opposite."  "  Leaves  alternate." — They  are  alternate,  and  we  refer  to  the 
letter  (s),  and  read : —  • 

"Stamens  on  the  receptacle,  in  several  sets/'  "Stamens  on  the  calyx.'' — The 
latter  is  true.  Refer  to  the  dash  ( — ).  Lastly : — 

"  —  Leaves 'with  a  marginal  vein."  "  —  Leaves  with  no  marginal  vein." — As  the 
latter  is  trae  of  our  specimens,  we  conclude  it  to  belong  to  the  Order  SAXIFRAGACE.E, 
and  thither  next  refer,  in  order 

925.  To  DETERMINE  THE  GENUS.     After  reading  and  comparing  as  before,  we 
read  the  characters  of  the  tribes ;  and  as  our  specimens  are  "  shrubs  with  opposite 
leaves,"  wo  readily  conclude  that  it  belongs  to  the  Tribe  Hydrangea?.     "VTe  next 
read: — "  Corolla  valvate  in  the  bud."     "  Corolla  convolute  in  the  bud." — It  is  the 
latter.     Refer  the  next  reader  to  the  dash  ( — ) ;  "  Stamens  20  to  40.     Petals  4." 
"  Stamens  10.     Petals  5." — In  our  specimens  there  are  20  or  more  stamens  with  4 
petals,  and  they  must  be  referred  to  the  Genus  PIIILADELPHUS.     Next  turn  to  that 
genus  and  compare  characters. 

926.  The  species  is  next  found  summarily  by  the  italicized  diagnosis  in  the  de- 
scriptions, thus : — 

"Leaves  entire.     Sepals  scarce  longer  than  the  tube. 

"Leaves  sharply  denticulate.     Styles  united. 

4*  Leaves  subdentate.  Styles  distinct." — Our  specimens  agree  well  with  the  2 d, 
and  we  conclude  that  the  species  for  which  we  have  sought  is  P.  grandiflorus,  a 
fine  flowering  shrub,  native  of  woods  in  the  Southern  States,  and  also  cultivated  in 
shrubberies. 

ANALYSIS   OF    AN   APETALOUS.  HERB. 

927.  Specimens  of  a  weed  common  in  cultivated  grounds  are  now  supposed  to 
be  before  us.     It  has  small,  homely  flowers,  not  easily  discernible  except  under  a 
lens.     As  the  leaves  are  net-veined,  and  the  flowers  5-parted.  with  a  calyx  only, 
the  learner  readily  pronounces  it  a  member  of  the  Cohort  APETALJE,  and  refers  us  to 
(C).     The  two  lines  marked  with  the  paragraph  (*"),  although  placed  (for  obvious 
reasons)  at  some  distance  apart,  are  to  be  read  together,  thus : — 

"  ^[  Plants  herbaceous,  the  flowers  not  in  aments." 

"  ^f  Plants  woody,  shrubs  or  trees." — Our  plant  is  an  herb.  Refer  to  the  two 
lines  marked  with  a  star  (*). 

"  *  Flowers  with  a  regular  calyx,  or  a  calyx-like  involucre. 

12  * 


178  ANALYSIS  OF  AN  ENDOGEN. 

"  *  Flowers  achlamydeous, — with  neither  calyx  nor  corolla." — Our  specimens 
have  a  regular  calyx.  Refer  to  the  lines  marked  (1). 

"  Calyx  tube  adherent  to  the  ovary,  limb  lobed  or  toothed. 

"  Calyx  free  from  the  ovary,  sometimes  enclosing  it." — The  latter.  Refer  to  the 
five  hues  marked  (3).  The  3d  of  these  lines  reads,  "Ovary  one,  1-3-ovuled, 
with  2-5  styles  or  stigmas."  Our  weed,  having  a  1-ovuled,  2-styled  ovary,  well 
agrees  with  this  description.  Refer  to  (5). 

"  Fruit  3  seeded,  with  3  (often  cleft)  stigmas." 

"  Fruit  1-seeded." — It  is  the  latter,  and  refers  us,  next,  to  the  dash  (— ). 

—  Stipules  sheathing  the  stem." 

—  Stipules  none.     Calyx  scarious-bracteolate." 

—  Stipules  none.     Calyx  naked.     Leaves  alternate." 

—  Stipules  none.     Calyx  naked.     Leaves  opposite." — In  our  specimens,  the  sti- 
puleg  are  wanting,  bracteoles  are  wanting,  and  the  leaves  are  alternate.     Hence 
they  belong  to  CUENOPODIACEJ-].     We  turn  and  consult  that  order,  as  before,  to 
verify  our  analysis  thus  far,  and  to  learn  the  genus. 

928.  To  ascertain  the  suborder,  we  must  examine  the  embryo  contained  in  the 
little  shining  black  seed.     By  a  good  lens  (or  even  with  good  eyes),  we  learn  that 
the  "embryo  is  not  coikd,  but  merely  bent  into  a  ring.     The  leaves  also,  are  thin  (riot 
fleshy)  and  expanded.     Hence  its  suborder  is  Cyclolobea?.     Refer  to  the  starred  (*) 
lines  and  determine  the  tribe.     As  the  inflorescence  is  normal  (that  is,  of  the  usual 
form,  or  nothing  unusual),  with  perfect  flowers  and   continuous  (not  jointed)  stems, 
we  conclude  that  it  belongs  to  Tribe  Chenopodiea3.     Refer  to  (c).     As  the  seed  (or 
the  plane  of  its  ring)  is  horizontal,  the  pericarp*  thin  and  the  calyx  not  bordered  we 
decide  that  its  genus  is  CHENOPODIUM. 

The  species  remains  now  to  be  determined.     "We  first  read : — 
"  Plant  smooth,  never  glandular,  ill-scented.     Embryo  a  complete  ring." 
"  Plant  glandular-puberulent,  green,  aromatic.     Embryo  half  a  ring."     The  latter 
character  applies  to  our  plant.     Read  the  starred  (*)  lines,  respecting  the  herbage, 
whether  green  or  glaucous,  &c.     It  is  glaucous  in  Our  plant,  and  covered  with  meali- 
ness.    Refer  to  species  5-7.     Seeing,  next,  the  italicized  diagnosis,  we  finally  de- 
termine that  the  species  sought  is  No.  6.  C.  ALBUM  ;  for  the  leaves  are  rhombic-ovate, 
sinuate-toothed,  etc.,  etc. 

• 
ANALYSIS   OF    AN  ENDOGEN. 

929.  A  grass-like,  3Tellow-flowered  plant  is  now  supposed  to  bo  found  and  fur- 
nished to  the  pupils  for  analysis.     Having  determined  that  it  is  an  Endogen  (for  it 
has  parallel-veined  leaves  and  3-parted  flowers),  the  pupils  next  seek 

930.  To  DETERMINE  ITS  CLASS,  whether  the  3d  or  4th.     They  read  the  diagnosis 
of  these  clases,  as  follows : — 

"  CLASS  3d.  Flowers  with  no  glumes." 

"  CLASS  4th.  Flowers  with  greenish,  alternate  glumes,"  &c.  The  flowers  of  our 
plant  have  no  glumes,  but  a  regular  perianth.  It  is,  therefore,  decided  to  be  one 
of  the  PETALIFERJ3.  or  Class  3d.  Refer  to  Cohorts  5  and  6,  and  the  next  pupil  reads : — 

"  Cohort  5.  Flowers  on  a  spadix,  apetalous  or  incomplete." 

"  Cohort  G.  Flowers  complete,  with  a  double  perianth."  The  latter  is  true  of 
our  plant,  and  it  therefore  belongs  to  the  cohort  of  the  FLORIDE.E.  Next  refer  the 
pupil  to  (F),  on  page  197,  in  order 

931.  To  DETERMINE  THE  NATURAL  ORDER.     He  reads: — 


ANALYSIS  OF  AN  ENDOGEN.  179 

"  Tf  Flowers  (not  on  a  spadix)  in  a  dense,  involucrate  head." 

"•[[Flowers  (not  on  a  spadix)  solitary,  racemed,  spicate,  &c."    The  latter  is  true 
here.    Refer  to  (3). 

"  3  Perianth  tube  adherent  to  the  ovary,  wholly  or  partly." 

"  3  Perianth  free  from  the  ovary."     It  is  adherent     Refer  to  (*5).     The  next 
pupil  reads : — 

"  *  5  Flowers  dioecious  or  polygamous.     Low  aquatic  herbs." 

'•  *  5  Flowers  dioecious,  G-androus.    Shrubby  climbers." 

"  *  Flowers  perfect"    The  last  is  true  of  our  specimens.     Refer  to  the  dash  ( — ), 
and  read,  " — Gynandrous." 
"  —  Monandrous." 
"  —  3-6-androus."     It  is  6-androus.     Refer  the  next  pupil  to  (6). 

"  6  Perianth  woolly  or  mealy  out-side." 

"  6  Perianth  glabrous  out-side."     The  latter  applies  to  our  specimens.     Refer  to 
the  dash  ( — ).     "  —  Stamens  3,  anthers  introrse." 
"  —  Stamens  3,  anthers  extrorse." 

"  —  Stamens  6."     The  last  is  true  of  our  plant.     It  must,  therefore, 
belong  to  the  Nat  Ord.  AMARYLLIDACKE.    Turn  to  that  order,  and 

932.  DETERMINE  THE  GENUS,  AND  SPECIES.     Further  illustrations  are  unneces- 
sary. 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY. 


A  (a,    privative),    prefixed   to   a  Greek 

word  signifies  without,  as  aphyllous, 

without  leaves. 
Abbreviations,  page,  189. 
Abortion,  nondevelopment  of  a  part. 
Absorption,  770,  775,  791. 
Acaulescent,  apparently  stemless,  169. 
Accessory,  something  superadded. 
Accrescnt,  growing  after  flowering. 
Accumbent,  lying  against  a  thing,  569. 
Acerose,  needle-shaped,  277. 
Achenium,  plural,  achenia,  556. 
Achlaraydeous,  without  floral  envelopes. 
Acicular,  finely  needle-shaped. 
Acotyledonous,  without  cotyledons. 
Acrogens,  summit-growers,  899. 
Aculeate,  armed  with  prickles. 
Acuminate,  drawn  out  into  a  point,  283. 
Acute,  ending  in  a  sharp  angle,  283. 
Adherent,  growing  to,  466. 
Adnate,  growing  fast  to,  495. 
Adventitious,  growing  out  of  the  usual 

or  normal  position,  as  roots,  134. 
Aeration,  same  as  Respiration,  815.' 
Aerophyta,  includes  the  Lichens,  907. 
Estivation,  383. 

Affinity,  resomblanco  in  essential  organs. 
Age  of  trees,  97. 

Aggregate,  assembled  close  together. 
Aglumaceous,   without  glumes,  the  same 

as  PetaliferjB,  898. 
Agricultural  Chemistry,  834. 
Air  bladders,  311. 
Air  cells  or  vessels,  790. 
Air  plants,  841. 
Ala,  wing;  Ala?,  wings,  474. 
Albumen,  590.     Albuminous,  589. 
Alburnum,  sap-wood,  697. 
Alga?,  sea-weeds,  907.     Fig.  545-550. 
Alternate,  222. 
Alternate  generation,  634. 
Alveolate,  with  pits  like  the  honey-comb. 
Ament,  a  deciduous  spike,  348. 
Ammonia,  839. 

Amorphous,  without  definite  form. 
Amphigdstria,  626. 
Amphitropous,  539. 
Amplexicaul,  stem-clasping,  245. 
Analysis,  Botanical,  915. 


Analytical  tables  explained,  919. 

Anastomosis,  union  of  vessels  or  veins. 

Anatropous,  537. 

Ancipital,  two-edged. 

Andrcecium,  491. 

Androgenous,  stamens  and  pistils  on  the 

same  peduncle; 

Angiospermas,  angiosperms,  898. 
Angiospores,  900. 
Annual,  yearly,  89. 
Annular  cells,  652. 
Anterior,  parts  (of  a  flower)  adjacent  to 

the  bract. 

Anthelmintic,  expelling  or  killing  worms. 
Anther,  497. 

Anthesis,  the  opening  of  the  flower;  flow- 
ering. 

Antheridia,  629. 

Apetalse,  903.    Apetalous,  without  petals. 
Aphyllous,  without  leaves. 
Apophysis,  a  swelling,  e.  g.  under  the 

thecee  of  some  Mosses. 
Apothecia,  631. 
Appendicular  organs,  433. 
Appressed,  closely  applied  but  not  adher- 
f  ing  to ;  the  same  as  adpressed. 
Apterous,  without  wings. 
Aquatic,  living  in  water. 
Arachnoid,  resembling  cobwebs. 
Arboreous,  arborescent,  tree-like. 
Archegonia,  629. 

Arcuate,  arched  or  curved  like  a  bow. 
Areolate,  having  the  surface  divided  into 

little  spaces  or  areas. 
Aril,  an  extra  sead-covering,  586. 
Aristate,  with  an  arista  or  awn  (barley). 
Armed,  bearing  prickles,  spines,  etc. 
Articulated,  jointed,  as  the  culm  of  wheat. 
Artificial  classes,  877. 
Artificial  orders,  878. 
Ascending,  arising  obliquely;  assurgent. 
Ascidia,  leaves  holding  water,  308. 
Attenuate,  becoming  slender  or  thin. 
Auriculate,  ear-bearing,  2G7. 
Awn,  the  beard  of  barley,  and  the  like. 
Axial  root,  122. 
Axil  (arm-pit),   the   angle   between  the 

petiole  and  tho  branch  on  the  upper 

side. 


INDEX    AND    GLOSSARY. 


181 


Axillary,  growing  out  of  the  axils. 

Axis,  ascending,  146,  148;  erect,  148; 
procumbent,  prostrate,  trailing,  decum- 
bent, 148;  excurrent,  173;  solvent, 
174;  descending,  114. 

Baccate,  berry-like ;  covered  with  pulp. 

Banner,  same  as  Vexillum,  474. 

Banyan  tree,  137. 

Baobab  tree,  100. 

Bark,  700. 

Basidia,  631.     Fig.  539. 

Basilar,  basal,  attached  to  the  base. 

Bast  cells,  wood-cells  of  bark,  701. 

Beaked,  ending  in  an  extended  tip. 

Bearded,  with  tufts  of  long,  weak  hairs. 

Berry,  566. 

Bi,  Bis,  twice  (in  compound  words). 

Bicolor,  two-colored. 

Bicuspidate,  with  two  points  or  cusps. 

Bidentate,  with  two  teeth. 

Biennial,  of  two  years,  90. 

Bifid,  cleft  into  two  parts. 

Bifoliate,  with  two  leaflets. 

Bifurcate,  twice  forked,  or  merely  forked. 

Bilabiate,  two-lipped. 

Binate.  289. 

Bipinnate,  289. 

Bipinnatifid,  twice  pinnatifid.     Fig.  142. 

Biternate,  twice  ternate,  291. 

Bivalved,  two-valved. 

Blade.     See  Lamina,  239. 

Blanched  (plants),  whitened  for  the  want 

of  light,  820.     See  Etiolated. 
Bloom,   a  fine,  white  powder  on  some 

plants. 

Botany  defined,  38. 
Botany,  elementary,  40. 
Botany,  physiological,  41,  636. 
Botany,  systematic,  42,  858. 
Brachiate,     with     opposite,      spreading 

branches  (arms). 
Bract,  319,  333. 
Bracteate,  having  bracts. 
Bracteoles,  or  bractlets,  333. 
Branches,  'l07,  152. 
Bristles,  stiff,  sharp  hairs. 
Bryology,  the  science  of  Mosses. 
Bud,  105.     Budding,  215. 
Buds  axillary,  202  ;  accessory,  206. 
Buds,  adventitious,  207. 
Buds,  suppression  of,  205. 
Bud-scales.  197,  305. 
Bulb,  191;  tunicated,  193;  scaly,  193. 
Bulblets,  216. 

Caducous,  dropping  off  early. 
Calyciflorae,  902. 
Cffispitous,  forming  tufts  or  turf. 
Calceolate,  slipper-shaped. 
Calycine.  calyx-like. 


Calyculate,  having  an  outer  calyx  or  calyx- 
like  involucre. 

Calyptra,  the  hood  of  the  sporange  (cap- 
sule) of  a  moss.     Fig.  514,  519. 

Calyx,  the  outer  floral  envelope,  900. 

Cambium,  709. 

Campanulate,  bell-shaped,  497.   • 

Campy lotropous,  538. 

Canaliculate,  channeled. 

Canescent,  grayish  white. 

Capillary,   capillaceous,  hair-shaped. 

Capitate,  head-shaped,  growing  in  close 
clusters,  or  heads. 

Capitulum,  a  little  head,  354. 

Capreolate,  bearing  tendrils. 

Capsule,  576. 

Carbon,  830.     Carbonic  Acid,  825. 

Carina,  474.     Carinate,  boat-shaped,  hav- 
ing a  sharp  ridge  beneath. 

Carpel,  carpellary,  516. 

Carpophore,  553,  557.     Fig.  432. 

Cartilaginous,    firm  and  tough    in  tex- 
ture. 

Caruncle,  586. 
i  Caryophyllaceous,  472. 
!  Caryopsis,  560. 
I  Catkin,  348.     See  Ament. 
I  Caudex,  176. 

i  Caulescent,  169.     Caulis,  169. 
|  Cauline,  relating  to  the  stem. 

Cellular  tissue,  664.     Cell,  639. 
|  Cell-growth,  752;  life,  743. 
!  Cellular  bark,  702. 
!  Cellulose,  654,  744. 
|  Centrifugal  inflorescence,  343. 

Centripetal  inflorescence,  342. 

Cephalous,  same  as  Capitate. 

Cereal,  relating  to  grains,  corn,  etc. 

Cernuous,    nodding  (less  inclined    than 
pendulous). 

Chaff,  chaffy.     See  Paleaceous. 

Chalaza,  535. 

Channeled,  hollowed  out  like  a  gutter. 

Characters,  relative  value  of,  839. 

Chartaceous,  with  the  texture  of  paper. 

Chlorophylle,  657,  733,  749. 

Chlorosis,  432. 

Ciliate,  fringed  with  marginal  hairs. 

Cienchyma,  671. 

Cion  or  Scion,  158. 

Cinereus,  ash-gray,  ash-color. 

Circinate,  rolled  inward  from  the  top,  213. 

Circulation  of  the  sap,  748. 

Circumscissile,  552. 

Cirrhous.  furnished  with  a  tendril. 

Cirrhous  roots,  135. 

Classes,  artificial,  877,  etc. 

Classes,  natural,  898. 

Classification,  artificial,  873. 

Clavate,  club-shaped. 

Coarctate.  contracted,  drawn  together. 


182 


INDEX    AND    GLOSSARY. 


Coccus,  a  berry.  Also  (in  the  pi.  cocci) 
the  1 -seeded  carpels  of  separable  fruits. 

Cochleate,  spiral  like  the  snail-shell. 

Cohesion,  438. 

Cohorts,  901. 

Collateral,  placed  side  by  side. 

Collum,  118. 

Color  of  flowers,  369. 

Colored,  of  any  color  except  green,  which 
in  botany  is  not  a  color,  while  white  is. 

Column,  the  combined  stamens  and  styles. 

Coma,  585. 

Commissure,  the  joined  faces  of  the  car- 
pels of  the  cremocarp. 

Common,  belonging  alike  to  several. 

Complete  flower,  412. 

Complicate,  folded  up  upon  itself. 

Compound  leafj  285. 

Compound  flower,  355. 

Compressed,  flattened  on  the  sides. 

Conceptacle,  631. 

Conduplicate,  folded  on  itself  lengthwise. 

Cone,  578,  579. 

Confluent,  uniting,  same  as  Coherent. 

Conglomerate,  clustered  or  crowded. 

Conjugate,  coupled,  joined  by  pairs. 

Connate,  294. 

Connectile,  connective,  494,  498. 

Connivent,  converging,  coming  together. 

Continuous,  the  reverse  of  Jointed. 

Contorted,  twisted,  389. 

Convolute,  393. 

Cordate,  heart-shaped,  267. 

Coriaceous,  leather-like,  295. 

Corm,  189,  407,  435. 

Corneus,  horn-like  in  texture. 

Corniculate,  with  a  small  horn  or  spur. 

Corolla,  401.  .  Corolliflorse,  902. 

Corolline,  pertaining  to  the  corolla. 

Corona,  crown,  435. 

Cortical  bark,  703. 

Corymb,  corymbous,  350. 

Costate,  ribbed,  with  rib-like  ridges. 

Cotyledons,  306,  594. 

Crassula  (a  genus  of  plants),  415. 

Crateriform,  of  the  form  of  a  goblet. 

Creeper,  creeping  stems,  181. 

Cremocarp,  557. 

Crenate,  bordered  with  rounded  teeth. 

Crenulate,  279. 

Crested  or  cristate,  with  an  elevated 
ridge. 

Crispate  or  Crisped,  282. 

Crown  of  the  root,  186. 

Cruciform  (corolla),  470. 

Crude  sap,  794. 

Crustaceous,  hard,  thin  and  brittle. 

Cryptogamia,  cryptogams,  621,  895. 

Cucullale,'  rolled  up  into  a  hood-shape. 

Culm,  the  straw  of  grasses,  170. 

Cuneate,  cuneiform,  wedge-shaped,  266. 


Cupule,  a  litte  cup  (sc.  acorn),  562. 
Cuspidate,  with  a  sharp,  stifi'  point. 
Cuticle,  680. 
Cyanic,  370. 
Cyathiform,  cup-shaped. 
Cycle  (in  Phyllotaxy),  228. 
Cycl6sis,  same  as  Rotation,  807. 
Cyme,  cymous,  357. 
Cymbiform,  boat-shaped. 
Cypsela,  557.       . 
Cytoblast,  655. 

Deca,  (in  Greek  composition),  ten. 

Deciduous,  falling  at  the  end  QI*  the  season. 

Declinate,  bent  downwards. 

Decompound,  much  •compounded  or  di- 
vided. 

Decumbent,  148.    Fig.  39.  ' 

Decurrent,  244,  28r, 

Decussate  (leaves),  227. 

Definite,  503. 

Deflexed,  bent  downward. 

Defoliation,  the  casting  off  of  leaves. 

Dehiscence,  524. 

Deliquescent  (axis),  same  as  Solvent.  174. 

Deltoid,  form  of  the  Greek  letter  A,'  2G5. 

Dendroid,  tree-like  in  form. 

Dendron  (in  Greek  compounds),  a  tree. 

Dentate,  279.     Denticulate,  279. 

Denuded,  become  naked. 

Depauperate,  less  developed  than  usual. 

Dependent,  hanging  down. 

Depressed,  flattened  from  above  ;  low. 

Dextrine,  762. 

Dextrorse  (twining),  turning  to  the  right. 
Fig.  49. 

Di  (in  Greek  numerals),  two. 

Diadelphous,  506. 

Diagnoscis,  a  brief  statement  of  the  dis- 
tinctive character  of  a  plant  or  group. 

Dialypetalous,  Polypetalous,  903. 

Diaphanous,  transparent  or  translucent. 

Diandrous,  with  two  stamens,  503. 

Diastase,  762. 

Dichotomous,  forked  or  two-forked. 

Diclinous,  421. 

Dicotyledons,  Dicotyledonous,  421. 

Dictyogens,  727. 

Didymous,  double. 

Didynamous,  Didyriamia,  877,  §  2. 

Digitate,  with  several  distinct  leaflets 
palmately  arranged  (as  in  the  leaf  of 
the  Horse-chestnut). 

Diffuse,  much  divided  and  spreading. 

Dimidiate  (anther),  halved,  499. 

Dicecia,  dioecious,  877,  §5. 

Dipterous,  having  two  wings. 

Dischidia,  310. 

Disk,  446.     Discoid,  no  rays.     Fig.  211. 

Dissected,  cut  into  deep  lobes. 

Dissepiment,  525. 


INDEX    AND    GLOSSARY. 


183 


Distichous,  arranged  in  two  rows. 
Distinct,  separate,  not  united. 
Divaricate,  wide-spread,  straggling. 
Divergent,  spreading  with  a  less  angle. 
Dorsal,  on  or  relating  to  the  back. 
Double  terms,  301. 

Downy,  clothed  with  short,  weak  hairs. 
Drupe,  563.     Drupaceous.     See  Try  ma. 
Ducts.     See  Trachenchyma,  668. 
Duplicate,  in  pairs,  double. 
Duramen,  heart- wood,  693. 
Dwarfing,  140.s 

E,  ex  (in  composition),  without;  as, 

Ebracteate,  without  bracts. 

Earthy  elements,  83 2.    v 

Echinate,  priqki&with  rigid  hairs. 

Eficete,  sterile,  exhausted.^ 

Elaters,  spiral,  elastic  threads,  accompany- 
ing certain  spores.  Fig.  506. 

Elliptic,  elliptical  (leaf),  265,  a. 

Elongated,  lengthened,  extended. 

Emarginate,  284.    " 

Embryo,  591,  103. 

Embryonic  vesicle,  754. 

Endocarp,  5G3. 

Endochrome,  the  coloring  matter  of  plants. 
See  Chlorophylle. 

Endogenous  structure,  713. 

Endogeus,  70,  897. 

Endopleura.  same  as  Tegmen,  583. 

Endospores,  631. 

Ensifbnn,  s \vord-shaped,  275. 

Entire,  even-edged,  278. 

Ephemeral,  enduring  for  one  day. 

Epi  (in  Greek  composition),  upon ;  as, 

Epicarp,  563. 

Epidermis,  676. 

Epigynous,  upon  the  ovary,  465,  504. 

Epipetalous,  on  the  petals,  504. 

Epiphytes,  plants  on  other  plants,  143. 

Episperm,  the  skin  of  the  seed. 

Equitaat  (astraddle),  214. 

Erose,  eroded,  as  if  gnawed,  281. 

Eteerio,  565. 

Etiolated,  colorless  for  want  of  light. 

Exalbuminous,  without  albumen. 

Excurrent,  173. 

Exogense,  Exogens,  69,  897. 

Exogenous  structure,  691. 

Exosmose,  flowing  out,  781. 

Exospores,  631.    * 

Exserted,  projecting  out  of,  or  beyond. 

Extra  (in  composition),  beyond ;   as, 

Extra-axiilary,  same  as  supra-axillary. 

Exstipulate,  without  stipules,  240. 

Extra  Flour  (of  wheat),  750. 

Extrorse,  turned  outward,  497. 

Falcate,  scythe-shaped,  curved. 
Farinaceous,  flour-like  in  texture. 


Farinous,  mealy  on  the  surface. 

Fascicle  (a  bundle),  361. 

Fasciculate  (leaves),  222. 

Feather- veined,  259. 

Ferruginous,  of  the  color  of  iron  rust. 

Fertile  (flower),  seed-producing,  421. 

Fertilization,  751,  etc. 

Fibrilla?,  fibrils,  119,  724. 

Filament,  the  stalk  of  a  stamen,  493. 

Filiform,  slender  like  a  thread. 

Fimbriate,  fringed,  having  the  edge  bor- 
dered with  slender  processes. 

Fistular,  hollow,  as  the  leaf  of  onion. 

Flabelliform,  fan-shaped,  276. 

Flagelliform,  whip-shaped;  long,  taper 
and  supple. 

Flavescent,  yellowish,  turning  yellow. 

Flexuous,  zig-zag,  or  wavy. 

Flofccous,  with  hairs  in  soft  fleecy  tufts. 

Flora,  (a)  the  spontaneous  vegetation  of 
a  country ;  (&)  a  written  description  of 
the  same. 

Floral,  relating  to  flowers. 

Floral  calendar,  366. 

Floral  clock,  368. 

Floral  envelopes,  399 

Florets,  the  flowers  of  a  compound  flower, 
355. 

Flower,  372,  etc.;  origin  of,  110. 

Flower,  the  standard  of  beauty,  372. 

Flowering,  364. 

Flower-bud.  195,  374,  etc. 

Foliaceous,  leaf-like  in  texture  or  form. 

Foliation,  the  act  of  leafing. 

Follicle,  571. 

Food  of  plants,  835. 

Foramen,  same  as  Micropyle,  535. 

Forms,  accommodated,  17. 

Forms,  arrested,  21. 

Forms,  graduated,  14. 

Forms,  typical,  11. 

Free,  not  adherent  nor  adnate,  462. 

Fringed.     See  Fimbriate. 

Frond,  an  organ  which  is  both  stem  and 
leaf,  as  in  duck-meat,  fern,  626. 

Frondescent,  bursting  into  leaf. 

Fructification,  flower  and  fruit  as  a  whole. 

Fruit,  112,  541 ;  growth  of,  765. 

Fruit,  ripening  of,  766. 

Frutescent,  shrubby,  becoming  shrubby. 

Fulcra  (roots),  136. 

Fuliginous,  smoky  brown,  blackish. 

Fulvous,  dull  yellowish  brown. 

Funiculus  (a  little  rope),  535. 

Funnel-form.     See  Infundibuliform. 

Furcate,  forked. 

Furfuraceous,  scurfy. 

Furrowed,  marked  with  channels  length- 
wise. 

Fuscous,  grayish  or  blackish  brown. 

Fusiform,  spindle-shaped,  535. 


184 


INDEX    AND    GLOSSARY. 


Galea,  galeate,  483. 
Gamopetalae,  monopetalas,  903. 
Gamopetalous,  with  the  petals  united. 
Gamophyllous,  of  united  leaves. 
Gamosepalous,  with  the  sepals  united. 
Geminate,  twin,  two  together. 
Gemmation,    state    of   budding    (Latin, 

gemma,  bud). 

Geniculate,  bent  as  the  knee  (genu). 
Genus,  80.    Genera,  888. 
Germ,  the  ovary  (obsolete). 
Germination,  608,  761. 
Gibbous,  more  tumid  in  a  certain  place. 
Glabrous,  smooth  or  not  hairy,  296. 
Gladiate,  sword-shaped,  ensiform. 
Gland,  glandular,  682. 
Glans,  562. 
Glaucous,  sea-green,  bluish,  usually  with 

a  bloom  or  whitish  powder. 
Globous,  in  form  nearly  spherical. 
Glomerate,  collected  into  close  heads. 
Glomerule,  362. 

Glossology,  the  same  as  Terminology. 
Glumes,  339,  459. 
Glumiferae,  898. 
Gluten,  750. 
Gonidia^  635. 

Granular,  composed  of  grains. 
Grafting,  158. 
Graminoideas,  905. 
Grand  Divisions,  76. 
Growth  is  downwards,  799. 
Gymnos  (a  Greek  prefix),  naked ;  as, 
Gymnospermous,  with  naked  seeds. 
Gymnosperma?,  gymnosperrns,  898. 
Gymnosporae,  gymnospores,  900. 
Gynandrous,  504. 
Gynoecium,  405. 
Gynobase,  a  process  of  the  torus  on  and 


Hermaphrodite  (flower),  with  both  sta- 
mens and  pistils. 
Heterocephalous,  heads  of  two  sorts  in 

the  same  plant,  some  $  and  some  $  . 
Heterogamous,   two  sorts  of  flowers  in 

the  same  head,  some  $  and  some  $  . 
Hexa  (Greek  numeral),  six ;  as  in, 
Hexagonal,     6-sided.     Hexamerous,    O 

parted. 
Hexandrous,     6-stamened.     llexandria, 

877,  §  1. 
Hilum,  537,  568. 

Hirsute,  hairy  with  rather  long  hairs. 
Hispid,  bristly  with  stiff  hairs,  298. 
Hoary,  frost-colored,  grayish-white. 
Homogamous,  head  with  all  the  flowers 

alike,  as  to  the  stamens  and  pistils. 
Honey,  767.     Honey-bee,  768. 
flooded.     See  Gucullate. 
Horny,  of  the  texture  of  horn. 
Hortus  siccus,  herbarium,  54. 
Humifuse,  spreading  on  the  ground. 
Hyaline,  transparent  or  nearly  so. 
Hybrid,    a    cross-breed    between    two 

species. 

Hydrogen,  831. 
Hydrophyta,  907. 
Hymenium,  631. 

Hyperborean,  inhabiting  northern  regions. 
Hypo  (in  Greek  compounds),  under ;  as, 
Hypocrateriform,  salver-form,  481.  Fig. 

322. 

Hypogean,  growing  under  ground. 
Hypogynous,  463,  504. 
Hysterophyta,  907. 


around  which    the  carpels    are 
pended;  sc.  Geranium,  Fig.  428. 


sus- 


Gynophore,  a  produced  torus  bearing  the 


ovary  on  its  summit.     Fig.  290. 
Gyrate,  same  as  Circinate,  213. 
Gyrous,  strongly  bent  to  and  fro. 

Habit,  the  general  aspect  of  a  plant. 


|  Tcosandria,  877,  Class  XIII. 
1  Imbricate,  imbricated,  90. 

Immarginate,  having  no  rim  or  border. 

Immersed.     See  Submersed. 

Inaxial  root,  123. 

Incised,  divided  deeply  as  if  cut. 


Included,  inclosed  within,  or  shorter 
than;  as  the  stamens  in  the  corolla 
tube. 

Incrassate,  thickened. 
i  Incumbent,  sc.  embryo,  599. 
Habitat,  the  natural  "locality,  or  place  of,  Indehiscent,  not  opening,  549. 

growth  of  a  wild  plant.  i  Indigenous,  native  of  a  country. 

Hairs,  681.     Hair}'-,  hirsute.  |  Induplicate,  388. 

llalbert-shaped,  hastate.     Fig.  155,  I        \  Indusium,    the    shield  of   the    fruit-dot 
Halved,  one  half  apparently  deficient.  (sorus)  of  a  fern.     Fig.  500,  501. 

Hastate,   with  the  base   lobes   abruptly  .  Inferior,  lower  in  position,  465. 

spreading,  as  in  ahalbert.     Fig.  155, 1.    Inflorescence,  320. 
Heart-shaped.    Fig.  155,  p.    Heart-wood,  |  Infundibuliform,  funnel-shaped,  479. 

697.  j  Innate  (sc.  anther),  495. 

Herb,  herbaceous,  89,  90.  j  Innovations,  635. 

Herbaceous,  green  and  cellular  in  tex-  \  Inserted,  Insertion,  refer  to  the  point  of 


ture. 
Herbarium,  54. 
Hesperidiura,  567. 


junction  or  apparent  origin. 
Integument,  a  coat  or  covering. 
Internode,  161. 


INDEX    AND    GLOSSARY. 


185 


Interruptedly  pinnate,  287.  Fig.  159. 
Introrse  (anthers),  turned  inward,  497. 
Involucre,  337. 

Involute,  rolled  inward,  213.  Fig.  81. 
Irregular  flowers,  441. 

Jointed,  having  joints,  separable  pieces. 
Jugum,  a   pair;    a?,  bijugous,  with  two 
pairs  of  leaflets;  trijugous,  three  pairs. 

Keel,  Keeled.     See  Carinate. 
Kidney-shaped.     See  Reniform,  271. 
Kingdoms  of  Nature,  31-33. 

Labellum,  the  odd  petal  of  an  orchid,  484. 

Labiate,  lip-shaped,  483. 

Lacerate,  torn  irregularly  by  deep  inci- 
sions. 

Laciniate,  slashed,  with  deep  incisions. 

Lactescent,  containing  lac,  or  milk. 

Lacunous,  with  large  depressions  or  pits. 

Lacustrine,  growing  in  lakes. 

Lamina,  the  blade  of  a  leaf,  453. 

Lanceolate,  lance-shaped.     Fig.  116. 

Lanuginous,  woolly,  297. 

Latex,  the  turbid  or  milky  juice  of  plants. 

Laticiferous  tissue.     See  Cienchyma,  671. 

Latin  names  of  plants,  75. 

Layer.     See  Stolon,  157. 

Leaf,  217,  etc. ;  structure  of,  729. 

Leaf-bud,  195,  etc. 

Leaflet,  the  pieces  of  a  compound'  lea£ 

Leaf-stems,  166. 

Legume,  572. 

Lenticulate,  shaped  like  a  double  convex 
lens. 

Liber,  the  inner  bark,  705 . 

Lichens.  Fig.  530-536.  See  Aero- 
phyta,  907. 

Ligneous  system,  685. 

Ligulate,  strap-shaped,  482. 

Ligule,  the  stipules  of  grasses,  251. 

Liliaceous  flower,  473. 

Limb,  the  border,  453. 

Linear,  long  and  narrow,  275. 

Livid,  clouded  with  bluish,  brown,  and 
gray. 

Lobate,  lobed,  270. 

Loculicidal,  opening  into  the  cell,  580. 

Locusta,  a  spikelet  of  the  grasses. 

Loment,  a  jointed  legume,  573. 

Lorate,  thong-shaped. 

Lunate,  crescent-shaped. 

Lyrate,  pinnatifid  with  the  upper  lobes 
mnch  larger  than  the  lower. 

Macros  (iu  Greek  compounds),  long  or 

large. 

Maculate,  spotted  or  blotched. 
Mangrove  tree,  138. 
Male  (flowers),  same  as  Staminate. 


Marcescent,  withering,  but  persistent. 

Marginal,  belonging  to  the  border. 

Marginate,  having  the  border  different. 

Medulla,  pith.     Medullary  rays,  705. 

Medullary  sheath,  693. 

Membranaceous,  membranous,  thin  and 
pellucid. 

Mericarp,  one  of  tho  carpels  of  a  cremo- 
carp  of  an  Umbilifer,  557. 

Micropyle,  535  ;  same  as  Foramen. 

Microscope,  60. 

Midrib,  the  central  vein  of  a  leaf. 

Midvein  (used  in  this  work),  256. 

Mitriform,  formed  like  a  conical  cap. 

Monos  (in  Greek  compounds),  one  only:  as, 

Monadelphous,  506. 

Monandrous,  one-stamened,  503. 

Moniliform  (roots),  132. 

Monocarpic  herbs,  91. 

Monochlamydeae,  902. 

Monochlamydeous  (flowers),  420. 

Monocotyledonous,  596,  897. 

Monoecious,  877,  §  5. 

Monogynous,  with  one  style,  513. 

Monopetalae.     See  Gamopetalae,  903. 

Monopetalous,  458,  459. 

MonophyUous,  one-leaved. 

Monosepalous,  458,  459. 

Monstrous  flowers,  380. 

Morphology,  39 ;  of  the  flower,  372. 

Morphology  of  the  leaf,  339. 

Mucro,  a  sharp,  small,  abrupt  point 

Mucronate,  2S3. 

Multi  (in  composition'),  many; 

Multifid,  cut  half-way  into  many  seg- 
ments. 

Muricate,  bearing  short,  hard  points. 

Muriform,  like  a  wall  of  mason-work. 

Muscology,  a  treatise  on  mosses. 

Muticous,  pointless,  not  pointed. 

Mycelium,  628. 

Naked  seeds,  548. 

Napiform.  (root),  28. 

Natant,  swimming ;  under  water. 

Naturalized,   growing  spontaneously  but 

not  native. 

Natural  System,  886. 
Natural  System,  history  of,  891. 
Nectar,  honey :  Nectary,  433,  456. 
Nepenthes,  309. 
Nerve,  the  veins   (254)   are  sometimes 

so-called. 

Netted  or  net- veined.  See  Reticulate,  258. 
Neutral  flower,  422. 
Nodding,  the  summit  bent  over  (sc.  snow* 

drop). 

Node,  a  joint  of  the  stem,  161. 
Nodous,  knotted;  large-jointed. 
Nodulous  (root),  132. 
Nomenclature,  909. 


186 


INDEX    AND    GLOSSARY. 


Normal,  according  to  rule,  regular. 
Nuciform,  nut-like. 
Nucleus,  kernel  (sc.  ovule),  537. 
Nut.     See  Glans,  562. 

Ob  (in  composition),  denotes  inversion ;  as, 
Obcompressed,  flattened  back  and  front. 
Obcordate.  284.     Oblanceolate,  266. 
Oblique,  unequal-sided  (sc.  leaves). 
Oblong,  265.    Obovate,  266.    Obtuse,  283. 
Ob  volute  (in  asstivation),  214. 
Ochrca,  sheathing  stipules,  249. 
Ochroleucous,  cream-color,  pale  yellow. 
Octo  (in  Greek  composition),  eight. 
Octandria,  877.    Octandrous,  8-stamened. 
Octogynous,  8-styled,  878. 
Offset,  a  short  lateral  shoot,  159. 
Oligos  (in  Greek  composition),  few ;  as, 
Oligandria,  with  few  stamens. 
Olivaceous,  olive- green,  brownish-green. 
Opaque,  dull,  not  shining. 
Opercular,  with  a  lid,  496. 
Opposite,  two  at  a  node,  153,  222. 
Orbicular,  Orbiculate,  circular,  265. 
Orchidaceous,  484. 
Organogens,  829. 
Organography,  39. 

Organic  world,  30.     Organic  soil,  837. 
Orthotropous  (ovule),  erect,  536. 
Osseous,  bony,  as  the  peach-stone. 
Oval,  265.     Ovate,  265. 
Ovary,  515.     Ovule,  532. 
Ovoid,  egg-shaped  as  in  fruits. 
Oxygen,  831. 

Paleae  or  Pales,  339,  489. 

Paleaceous,  chaffy,  having  pales. 

Palmi-veined,  260.     Palmate,  272. 

Panduriform,  fiddle-shaped. 

Panicle,  352.     Paniculate,  panic-led. 

Papilionaceous,  475. 

Pappus  the  calyx  of  Composites,  485. 

Parallel-veined,  258. 

Paraphyses,  jointed  threads  around  the 

antheridia  of  mosses.     Fig.  522. 
Parasites,  144. 
Parenchyma,  664,  730. 
Parietal,  on  the  wall  (paries),  526. 
Parted,  deeply  divided  into  parts. 
Patent,  wide  open.     Patulous,  half  open. 
Pear-shaped,  obovoid,  larger  above. 
Pectinate,  combed,  finely  pinnatifid. 
Pedate,  shaped  like  a  bird's  foot,  273. 
Pedicel,  328.     Peduncle,  327. 
Peltate,  shield-form,  271. 
Pendent,  Pendulous,  hanging,  drooping. 
Penicillate,  with   a  tuft  of  hairs,  as  it'  a 

camel's-hair  pencil. 

Pente  (in  Greek  composition),  five;  as, 
Pentamerous,  5 -parted. 
Pentandrous,  503.     Pentandria,  S77. 


Pepo,  a  fruit  like  a  melon,  568. 

Perennial,  living  several  years,  92. 

Perfect  flower,  with  both    stamen  and 

pistil. 

|  Perfoliate  (through  the  leaf),  293. 
|  Peri  (in  Greek  composition),  around. 
;  Perianth,  402 ;  forms  of,  469. 

Pericarp,  547. 

Perigynium,  488. 

Perigynous,  464. 

Period  of  flowering,  365. 

Perisperm,  same  as  Albumen,  590. 

Peristome,  632. 

!  Persistent,  remaining  lon^  in  place. 
,  Personate,  480. 

Petals,  401 ;  forms  of,  455. 

Petalifera?,  898. 

Petaloid,  with  the  form  or   texture  of 
petals. 

Petiole,  243.     Petiolate,  239. 

Petiolule,  246. 

Phsenogamia,  89,  895. 

Phyllodiurn,  plur.  Phyllodia,  307. 

Phyllotaxy,  leaf-arrangement,  220. 
'  Physiologj-,  41,  736. 

Phytology,  43  (Greek,  phytos,  a  plant). 

Pileorhiza,  cap  of  a  rootlet,  725. 

Pileus,  cap  of  some  Fungals.     Fig.  537,  c. 

Pilous,  with  erect,  thin  hairs.  298. 

Pine,  size  of,  101, — California!!,  101. 

Pinnate,  287.     Pinnatifid,  268,  269. 

Pistil,  407,  511. 

Pitchers  (leaves).     See  Ascidia,  308. 

Pith,  692.     Pitted  cells,  650,  667. 

Pitted,  with  depressions  or  excavations. 

Placenta,  520  ;  free  axile,  528. 

Pleurenchyma,  666. 

I  Plicate,  plaited  lengthwise  as  a  fan,  394. 
i  Plumous,  feathery. 
!  Plumule  (a  little  plume),  103,  59J. 

Pollen,  508.     Pollen  tube,  756. 
i  Pollinia,  masses  of  pollen,  500. 
!  Poly  (in  Greek  compounds),  many, 
i  Polyadelphous,  506, — 877,  ^3. 
I  Polygamous,  Polygnrnia,  877,  j$  5. 
!  Polypetalaj.     See  Dialypetulai,  903. 
i  Polypetalous,  Polysepalous,  458. 
|  Pome,  a  fruit  like  an  apple,  5G9. 
|  Posterior,  next  the  axis. 
i  Potato,  manner  of  its  growth,  188. 
j  Precocious,  flowering  before  the  leaves. 
i  Prafoliation,  vernation,  209. 

Premorse,  ending  abruptly,  185. 
i  Press  for  drying  plants,  57. 
|  Prickles,  18,  684. 

Primine,  same  as  Testa.  535. 

Primordial  utricle,  645. 

Prismatic,  prism-shaped,   having  several 
parallel,  longitudinal  angles. 

Procumbent  (stem),  148.     Fig.  38, 

Produced,  extended  more  than  usual 


INDEX    AND    GLOSSARY. 


187 


Proliferous,  reproducing,  as  cymes  from 
the  midst  of  a  cyme,  flowers  from  the 
midst  of  a  flower. 

Protein,  744.     Protoplasm,  744,  655. 

ProtothaUus,  629. 

Pruinous,  powdered,  as  if  frosted,  300. 

Prurisns,  causing  an  itching  sensation. 

Pseudo  (in  Greek  composition),  spurious. 

Pubescent,  downy  with  short,  soft  hairs.  « 

Puberuleut,  minutely  downy,  297. 

Pumilus,  pumilou-?,  dwarfed  in  size. 

Punctate,  seeming  as  if  perforate,  682,  or 
marked  with  minute  dots. 

Pungent,  piercing,  sharp-pointed. 

Putamen,  the  bony  nucleus  of  a  drupe. 

Pyramidal,  form  of  a  cone  or  pyramid. 

Pyriform,  of  the  form  of  a  pear. 

Pyxis,  a  pericarp  with  a  lid,  570. 

Quadri  (in  composition),  four  ;  as, 
Quadrifoliate,  four-leaved. 
Quadrangular,  four-angled. 
Quadrijugate,  with  four  pairs  of  leaflets. 
Quadrilateral,  four-sided. 
Quinque  (in  composition),  five. 
Quinate,  growing  in  fives,  292. 
Quincuncial,  391.     Fig.  248. 
Quintuple,  five-fold. 

Race  (Latin,  stirps),  a  permanent  variety, 

as  red-cabbage. 
Raceme,  349. 

Rachis,  axis  of  the  inflorescence,  286,  330. 
Radiate,  diverging  from  a  common  center. 
Radiate  (in  the  Composites),  the  outer  | 

row  of  florets  ligulate.     Tig.  170. 
Radiant,  outer  flowers  enlarged  (and  often  j 

neutral),  Fig.  271 ;  or  (in  the  Compos-  > 

ites),  all  the  florets  ligulate. 
Radical,  from  the  root,  103. 
Radical  of  the  flower,  408. 
Radicle,  rootlet  (of  the  embryo),  592. 
Ramial,  of  a  branch,  221. 
Raphe  (of  the  ovule  or  seed),  536. 
Raphides,  660. 

Receptacle,  331,  397,  443,  631. 
Recurved,  bent  (not  rolled)  backward. 
Reflexed,  curved  backward  excessively. 
Refracted,  bent  suddenly  as  if  broken. 
Regma,  fruit  as  of  Geranium,  577.    • 
Regular,  like  parts  similar,  412. 
Reniform,  kidney-shaped,  271. 
Repand  (margin),  280. 
Repent,  creeping. 
Respiration,  812. 

Resupinate,  reversed,  upside  down. 
Reticulate,  netted,  258. 
Retrorse,  backwards,  downwards. 
Retuse  (apex),  2S4.     Fig.  155,  c. 
Revolute,  rolled  backwards,  213. 
Rhizoma,  Rhizome,  183. 


Rhombic,  Rhomboidal,  in  the  figure  of  a 

rhomb,  or  approaching  it. 
Ribs,  the  chief  veins  of  a  leaf,  ridges. 
Ring  elastic  (of  the  fern-sporange).     Fig. 

489. 

Ringent  (corolla),  483. 
Root,  114.     Root-stock,  183. 
Rosaceous' (corolla),  491. 
Rostrate,  beaked,  with  a  beak. 
Rosulate  (leaves),   arranged  around  the 

base  of  the  stem  as  rose-leaves. 
Rotate,  wheel-shaped,  475. 
Rotation,  circulation  in  the  cell,  806. 
Rubicund,  blushing,  rosy  red. 
Rudiment,  the  beginning  of  a  thing. 
Rugous,  wrinkled,  295. 
Ruminated  (albumen),  full  of  chinks  as  if 

composed  of  numerous  folds. 
Runcinate,  hooded  backwards,  269. 
Runner,  160. 

Sagittate,  arrow-shaped,  267. 

Salver-shaped.   See  Hypocrateriform,  480. 

Samara,  561. 

Sap,  the  crude,  494 ;  the  true,  496. 

Sarcocarp  (of  the  drupe),  563.    I 

Scabrous,  rough,  296. 

Scalariform  (cells),  ladder-shaped,  653. 

Scales,  435.     Scale-stems,  169. 

Scandent,  climbing. 

Scape,  329.     Scarious,  295. 

Scattered,  sometimes  used  for  alternate. 

Scorpoid  (inflorescence),  358. 

Scrobiculate,  pitted,  with  little  depres- 
sions. 

Screw-pine,  136. 

Sea-green,  light  bluish  green,  glaucescent. 

Secund,  all  on  one  side,  or  turned  one 
way. 

Secundine,  same  as  Tegmen,  535. 

Seed,  582.     Seed  coverings,  535. 

Seed,  longevity  of,  602 ;  dispersion  ofj 
604. 

Semi  (in  composition),  half;  a-. 

Semicordate,  half  of  cordate. 

Semilunar,  half- moon-shaped. 

Semisagittate,  and  Semiterete. 

Sepals,  400.     Sepaloid,  sepal-like. 

Septum,  a  partition  between  two  spaces. 

Septicidal  (dehiscence),  550. 

Septifragal  (dehiscence),  550. 

Sericeous,  silky,  297. 

Serotinous,  occuring  late  in  the  season- 
Serrate,  Serrulate,  279. 

Sessile,  sitting,  not  stalked,  239. 

Setae,  299,  487.     Setaceous,  bristle-form, 

Setous,  Setigerous,  bearing  bristles. 

Sheath,  Sheathing,  as  tho  leaves  of  the 


Shrub,  95. 

Silique,  574.     Silicle,  575. 


188 


INDEX    AND    GLOSSARY. 


Siliquous,  bearing  siliques  (as  the  Cruci- 

fers). 

Silver-grain  (of  wood),  707. 
Simple,  of  one  piece,  not  compound. 
Sinistrorse,  twining  from  right  to  left. 

Fig.  50. 

Sinuate,  270.     Slips,  158. 
Soil,  837. 

Solitary,  growing  alone,  or  singly. 
Sori,  patches  of  fruit  in  ferns,  632.  Fig.  488. 
Spadicifiorse,  904.     Spadix,  347. 
Spathe,  Spathaceous,  336. 
Spatulate  (leaf),  266. 
Species,  76,  888.     Specific  name,  75. 
Specimens  (of  plants),  53,  56. 
Spennatozoid,  633.     Fig.  497,  553. 
Spike,  Spicate,  346. 
Spikelet,  a  little  spike,  as  in  a  grass. 
Spine,  a  woody  thorn,  316. 
Spindle-shaped  (root),  127.     Fig.  27. 
Spiral  arrangement  (of  leaves),  228. 
Spiral  cells  or  vessels,  651. 
Spongelet,  Spongiole,  118. 
Sporange,  632.     Spores,  630. 
Sporidia,  630.     Sporules,  635. 
Sporogamia,  906. 

Spur,  a  projecting,  slender  appendage,  434. 
Squarrous,  spreading  widely,  as  the  in- 

volucral  scales  of  some  Composites. 
Stamens,   404,  491.      Staminate  flower, 

421. 

Staminodia,  436,  502. 
Starch,  658,  748,  750. 
Stem,  or  Ascending  Axis,  146. 
Sterile,  not  bearing  seeds,  421. 
Stigma,  Stigmatic,  515. 
Stipe,  the  stalk  of  the  ovary  or  ovaries ; 

also,  the  stem  of  a  mushroom. 
Stipels,  Stipellate,  250. 
Stipules,  Stipulate,  240,  247. 
Stolon,    157.      Stoloniferous,    producing 

stolons. 

Stomata,  678,  732.     Figs.  582-586. 
Strap-shaped,  flat,  narrow  and  straight. 
Strict,  erect  and  very  straight. 
Strigous,  with  sharp,  close,  rigid  hairs. 
Strobile  (fruit),  578. 
Strophiolate,  having  an  appendage  (stro- 

phiole  or  caruncle)  about  the  liilum. 
Style,  575.     Styloid,  style-like. 
Sub  (in  composition),  302. 
Suberous,  corky  in  texture. 
Subulate,  awl-shaped,  277.  x 

Succulent,  very  juicy  and  cellular. 
Sucker,  156. 

Suffrutescent,  woody  at  the  base  only. 
Sulcate,  furrowed. 
Superior,  465,  468. 

Superior  calyx,  calyx  adherent  to  ovary. 
Superior  ovary,  calyx  free  from  ovary. 
Supervolute,  394. 


Supra-axillary,  situated  above  the  axil. 
Supradecompourid,  very  much  divided. 
Suspended  (ovule),  534.     Figs.  414,  419. 
Suspensor  (of  the  embryo),  758.   Fig.  608. 
Siitural  (dehiscence),  550. 
Sword-shaped,  as  the  vertical  leaves  of  Iris. 
Syconus,  fruit,  such  as  the  Fig.  580. 
Symmetry  (of  the  flower),  410,  412. 
Syn    (in   Greek    compounds),   together, 

union. 

Syncarpium,  579. 

Syngenesia,  Syngenesious,  877,  506. 
Synonyms,  914. 

Taper-pointed.     See  Acuminate,  283, 

Tap-root,  124,  142. 

Tawny,  fulvous,  dull  yellowish  brown. 

Taxonomy,  the  science  of  classification. 

Tegmen,  the  inner  seed-coat,  535,  583. 

Tendril,  313,  178. 

Teratology,  380. 

Terete,  cylindrical  or  nearly  EO. 

Term  of  Plant  Life,  83,  etc. 

Terminal,  situated  at  the  end  or  apex. 

Terminology,  44. 

Ternate  (leaves),  in  threes,  288. 

Tessalated,  checkered,  as  a  pavement. 

Testa,  the  outer  seed  coat,  535,  583,  4. 

Tetra  (in  Greek  composition),  four. 

Tetradjmamous,  505.   Tetradynamia,  877. 

Tetragonal,  with  four  corners. 

Tetragynous,  with  four  pistils. 

Thalamittoras,  902. 

Thallogamia,  906. 

Thallogens,  722,  899. 

Thallus,  627. 

Thecaspores,  630.     Theca,  Thecce,  632. 

Thorn,  317. 

Throat,  the  orifice  of  a  monopetalous  cor- 
olla. 

Thyrse,  353. 

Tomentous,    with    short,    dense,   woolly 
hairs. 

Top-shaped,  inversely  conical. 

Torus,  same  as  Receptacle.  336,  397. 

Trachenchyma.  668. 

Tree,  96. 

!  Tri  (in  Greek  compounds),  three. 
>  Triadelphous,  the  stamens  in  three  sets. 
''  Triandria,  Triandrous.  877. 

Trigynous,  three-styled,  513.    ' 

;  Tricoccous  (fruit),  with  three  one-seeded 
carpels. 

Tricolored,  with  three  colors. 

Triennial,  lasting  three  years. 

Trifid,  split  half-way  into  three  parts. 

Trifoliate,  with  three  leaflets. 

Trilobate,  having  three  lobes. 

Trimerous,  3-parted,  418. 

!  Tripartible,  separable  into  three  parts. 

I  Triple- veined,  261.     Fig.  118. 


INDEX    AND    GLOSSARY. 


189 


Triquetrous,  three  angled. 
Tripinnate,  thrice  pinnate,  289. 
Triternate,  thrice  ternate. 
True  sap,  796. 
Truncate,  284.     Fig.  155,  d. 
Trunk  (of  a  tree),  171. 
Tryma,  fruit  as  the  hickory-nut,  564 
Tube,  459.     Tubular  corolla,  481. 
Tuber,  187. 

Tuberculate,  covered  with  warts  (tuber- 
cles). 

Tumid,  swollen  or  inflated. 
Tunicate,  coated,  as  the  bulb,  193. 
Turion,  young  shoot,  as  of  asparagus. 
Typical  Flower,  412,  449.    Figs.  260,  262. 
Typical  Forms,  11,  12. 

Umbel,  351.     Umbellet,  a  partial  umbel. 

Umbellate,  bearing  umbels. 

Umbilicate,  with  a  sharp  depression  at  end. 

Unarmed,  with  no  stings,  thorns,  etc. 

Undersbrub,  a  low  shrub,  95. 

Undulate,  wavy,  280. 

Unequally  pinnate,  287. 

Unguiculate  (petal),  having  a  claw.  453. 

Uni  (in  compounds),  one. 

Unifdliate,  with  one  leaf  or  leaflet. 

Uniform,  of  one  form. 

Unilateral,  one-sided. 

Unilocular,  one-celled. 

Univalved,  with  but  one  valve. 

Ufceolate,  urn-shaped,  478. 

Utricle  (fruit),  559.  *'•'• 

Vaginate,  sheathing,  the  flattened  petiole 

involving  the  stem. 
Valvate,  387. 
Valves,  Valvular,  550. 
Varieties,  78. 
Vascular  tissue,  6GS. 


Vaulted,  arched.  [73G. 

Vegetation,  or  Physiology  of  Plant  Life, 

Veins,  253.      Veinlets,  Veinulets,  257. 

Venation  (of  the  leaf),  255. 

Ventricous,  swelling  out  on  one  side. 

Vernal,  appearing  in  the  Spring  tune. 
|  Vernation  (of  the  leaf  bud),  213. 

Ventral,  belonging  to  the  front  side,  ».  e., 
the  side  towards  the  axis. 

Verrucous,  covered  with  warts  (verrucas). 

Versatile  (anther),  495. 

Vertex,  the  summit,  same  as  Apex. 

Vertical,  in  the  direction  up  and  down, 
or  parallel  with  the  axis. 

Verticillate,  whorled,  222. 

Verticilaster,  362. 

Vespertine,  appearing  in  the  evening. 

Vexillary  (aestivation).     Fig.  251. 

Vexillum,  standard,  474.     Fig.  316,  317. 

Villous,  clothed  with  long,  weak  hairs, 
297. 

Vimineous,  with  long  flexible  shoots,  osier- 
like,  [slender. 

Vine,   178.     Virgate,   twiggy,    long  and 

Viscid,  Viscous,  sticky  or  glutinous. 

Vitta,  Vitta?,  the  minute  oil-tubes  hi  the 
fruit-coat  of  the  Umbelifera?. 

Volva,  membrane   enclosing  the  young 
Fungus.     Fig.  537,  e. 

"Wedge-shaped,  gradually  tapering  to  the 

base. 

Water,  838. 

Whorl,  a  circle  of  similar  organs. 
"Witch-grass,  181. 
Wood.  694.     Wood-cells,  649. 

Yeast  Plant  745. 

Zoology.  37. 
I  Zoospores,  633. 


ABBREVIATIONS    AND    SIG'NS 


OFTEN   USED   IN   DESCRIPTIVE   BOTANY. 


ach.  achenia. 
osst.  aestivation. 
alter,  alternate. 
ampkx.  amplexicaul. 
anth.  anther. 
axitt.  axillary. 
col.  calyx. 
caps,  capsule. 
cor.  corolla. 
decid.  deciduous. 
diam.  diameter. 
ellip.  elliptical 
emarg.  emarginate. 
epig.  epigynous. 
/.  or  ft.  feet. 


fil.  filaments. 

•ped.  peduncle. 

fl.  flower;  fis.  flowers. 

pet.  petals. 

ff.  fruit. 

perig.  perigynous. 

hd.  head  :  Ms.  heads. 

perig.  perigynium. 

hyp.  hypogynous. 

recep.  receptacle. 

iriibr.  imbricate. 

reg.  regular. 

inf.  inferior. 

rhiz.  rhizoma. 

invol.  involucre. 

rt.  root. 

irreg.  irregular. 

sds.  seeds. 

leg.  legume. 

seg.  segment. 

If.  leaf;  Ivs.  leave,?. 

sep.  sepals. 

Ifts.  leaflets. 

st.  stem. 

lorn,  loment. 

sta.  stamens. 

opp.  opposite.                      ;     stig.  stigmas. 

ova.  ovary.                                .';/.  styles. 

190 


ABBREVIATIONS    AND    SIGNS. 


The  names  of  the  months,  and  of  states  and  countries,  are  often  abbreviated,  and 
always  in  the  same  manner  as  in  other  works ;  thus,  Apr.  April ;  Jn.  June  ;  Mass. 
Massachusetts ;  N.  Y.  New  York ;  la.  or  Ind.  Indiana ;  Car.  Carolina ;  La.  Lou- 
isiana; etc. 

The  following  Signs  are  also  in  general  use : — 

(1)  An  annual  plant.  1?   A  plant  with  a  woody  stem. 

(D  A  biennial  plant.  $  A  staminate  flower  or  plant. 

14  A  perennial  herb.  $    A  pistillate  flower  or  plant. 

$    A  perfect  flower,  or  a  plant  bearing  perfect  flowers. 

<5>   Monoecious,  or  a  plant  with  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers. 

$  $   Dioecious ;  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  on  separate  plants. 

$  $  $  Polygamous ;  the  same  species  with  staminate,  pistillate,  and  perfect 
flowers. 

0  Wanting  or  none. 

CO  Indefinite,  or  numerous. 

0=  Cotyledons  accumbent.       ") 

0||  Cotyledons  incumbent,          >•  Used  only  in-  the  Crucifene. 

0»  Cotyledons  conduplicate.   ) 

§  A  naturalized  plant. 

f  A  plant  cultivated  for  ornament. 

\  A  plant  cultivated  for  use.  This,  with  the  two  last,  are  placed  at  the  end  of  a 
description.  In  other  situations  they  have  their  usual  signification  as  marks  of 
division  or  reference.  In  measure  of  length,  or  other  dimensions,  the  following  signs 
are  adopted  in  this  work  : — 

f  (without  the  perio.l)  A  foot. 

'  (a  single  accent)  An  inch. 

"  (double  accent)  A  line  (one  twelfth  of  '). 

!  The  note  of  exclamation,  common  in  botanical  works,  js  used  in  contrariety  to 
the  note  of  interrogation  (?).  It  denotes,  in  general,  certainty  from  personal  observa- 
tion. Affixed  to  a  locality,  it  denotes  that  the  writer  has  examined  specimens  either 
in  or  from  that  place.  Affixed  to  the  name  of  an  individual^;  denotes  that  the 
writer  has  examined  specimens  supplied  by  him.  Its  usejBRhe  present  work  is 
discontinued,  except  in  the  case  of  controverted  facts. 

AUTHORS'  NAMES  are  usually  abbreviated,  as  follows : — 


Adans.  Adanson. 

Grev.  Greville. 

Poir.  Poiret. 

A.  DC.  Alphonso  De  Candolle. 

GrisL-b.  Griscbach. 

Ph.  Pursh. 

Ait.  Alton. 

Gron.  Gronovins. 

R.  Br.  Uobcrt  Brown. 

Arn.  Arnott. 

Iledw.  Iledwig. 

Kaf.  IJafinesque. 

Aubl.  Aubict. 

Ilofi'm.  Hoffman. 

Uich.  Eicbard. 

Bart.  Barton. 

Hook.  Hooker. 

Richn.  Richardson. 

Beauv.  Beauvois. 

Huds.  Hudson. 

Rcem.  Eo?nicr. 

Benth.  Benthatn. 

Juss.  Jussieu. 

Salisb.  Salisbury. 

Bcrl.  Berlandier. 

Lair.  Lagasca. 

Schw.  Sclnvenitz. 

Bernh.  Bernhardf. 

Lam.  La  mark. 

Schrad.  Schrader. 

Brongn.  Bronsniart. 

Lamb.  Lambert. 

Schult.  Schnltos. 

Bigl.  or  Bw.  Bigeloiv. 
Boehtn.  Boehmer. 

Lehm.  Lehmann. 
Lindl.  Lindley. 

Scop.  Scopoli. 
Ser.  Serinje. 

Bong.  B^ngard. 

L.  or  Linn.  Linnaeus. 

Schk.  Scbkuhr. 

Br.  Brown. 

Lk.  Link. 

Sin.  Smith. 

Cass.  Cassini. 

Mart.  Martiu?. 

Soland.  Solander. 

Oav.  Cavanillos. 

Mentz.  Mentzel. 

Spr.  Sprensrel. 

Cli  am.  Chamisso. 

Mirhx.  Michaux. 

Steud.  Steudel. 

DC.  De  Candolle. 

Michx.  f.  [filius),  Michaux  the 

Sw.  Swartz. 

Dcsf.  Desfontaincs. 

von  n-ier. 

T.  &  G.,  Torr.  &  Gr.,  Torrcy  & 

Desv.  Desvaux. 

Mill.  Miller. 

Gray. 

Dew.  Dewey. 

Mirb.  Mirbel. 

Torr.  Torroy. 

Dill.  Dillenius. 

Mcench.  Moenchausen. 

To  urn.  Tournefort. 

Duh.  Duhainel. 

Mulil.  Muhlenberg. 

Trin.  Trinius. 

Dumort.  Duniorticr. 

Noes.  Nees  von  Esenbeck. 

Trant.  Trautvctter. 

Endl.  Endlicher. 

Nutt.  Nuttall. 

Vaill.  Vaillant. 

Ehrh.  Ehrhart. 

Pav.  Pavon. 

Vent.  Arentenat. 

Kll.  Elliot. 

Pers.  Persoon. 

Wahl.  Wahlonberg. 

En  gel.  Ensrelmann. 

Pall.  Pallas. 

Willd.  Willdenow. 

Frcel.  Frcelich. 

Pluk.  Plukcnet. 

Walt.  Walter. 

NGairt.  Gartner. 

Plum.  Plumier. 

Wulf.  Wulfeu. 

Gmcl.  Gmelin. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NATURAL  ORDERS, 

FOUNDED     UPON    THE    MOST    OBVIOUS     OR    ARTIFICIAL     CHARACTERS,    DE- 
SIGNED AS  A  KEY  FOR  THE  READY  DETERMINATION  OF  ANY  PLANT, 
NATIVE,  NATURALIZED  OR  CULTIVATED,  GROWING  WITHIN 
THE    LIMITS     OF    THIS    FLORA. 


PROVINCES,  CLASSES  AND  COHORTS. 

SUB-KINGDOM  I.    Phaenogamia  or  Flowering  Plants.    (PROVINCE.) 
PROVINCE  1.    Bark,  wood  and  pith  distinct,  the  two  former 
as  concentric  layers  around  the  latter.    Leaces  net-veined. 
Fvower,  at  least,  never  completely  Z-mcr&us,  its  parts  mostly 

in  4s  and  5s.  DICOTYLEDONS  or  EXOGEXS.  (CLASS.) 

CLASS  1.     Flowers  with  Btifjtnas,  and  pistils  enclosing  the 
ovules,  becoming  seed-vessels  enclosing  the  seeds.    AXGIOSPERMS.  (COHORT.) 
COHORT  1.    Corolla  with  the  petals  distinct.  POLYPETALOUS.  (A) 

COHORT  2.     Corolla  with  the  petals  united.  GAMOPETALOUS.  (B) 

COHORT  3.     Corolla  (and  often  the  calyx,  also,)  wanting.        APETALOUS.  (C) 
CLASS  2.    Flowers  with  open  scales  instead  of  pistils  (or  no 
pistils  at  all),  the  ovules  naked.    (Pine,  Cedar,  Fir,  Yew, 

Cypress,  etc.)  GYMXOSPERMS.  (COHORT.) 

COHORT  4.    The  cone-bearing  plants  (same  as  Class  2).  COXQIDEJ5.  (D) 

PROVINCE  2.    Bark,  wood  and  pith  commingled.  Lcs.parallel- 

veined  (rarely  netted).    Fls.  t-mcrouj.     MONOCOTYLEDONS  or  ENDOGENS." 
CLASS  3.    Fls.  with  no  glumes.      PET  ALIFER.E  or  AGLUMACEOUS.  (COHORT.) 
COHORT  5.    Fls.  on  a  spadix,  apetalous  or  incomplete.     SPADICIFLOR^E.  (E) 
COHOBT  6.    Flowers  complete,  with  a  double  perianth.  FLORIDE^E.  (F) 

CLASS  4.    Flowers  invested  with  green,  alternate  glumes 
instead  of  the  perianth  which  is  wr.nting  or  minute.  GLUMIFER^E.  (ConouT  . 
COHORT  7.  The  Grasses  and  Sedges  (same  as  Class  4).    GRAMIXOIDILE.    C« 
SUB-KINGDOM  II.     Cryptogamia,  or  Flowerless  Plants.  (PROVINCE.) 
PROVINCE  1.     With    stem    and   leaves   distinguishable,  and 

containing  woody  tissue  and  vessels.  ACROGEXS  or  AXGIOSPOR^E.  (Hi 

PROVINCE  2.     With  a  thallns,  often  .-tern-like,  but  contain- 
ing cellular  tissue  only.  THALLOGENS  or  GYMNOSPOEJE.  (K) 

A      COHORT  1.     POLYPETALOUS. 

*  Herbs  with  the  leaves  alternate  or  all  radical  (11). 

*  Herbs  with  the  leaves  opposite  on  the  stem  (7). 

*  Shrubs,  trees  or  undershrubs. — Flowers  regular  or  nearly  so.    '2 

— Flowers  irregular  (or  fruit  a  legume),  (r) 

2  Polyandrous, — stamens  3  to  10  times  as  many  as  the  petals,  or  more.  (3) 
2  Oliganclrous. — stamens  1—2  times  as  many  as  the  petals  or  fewer.  (4) 
3  Leaves  opposite,  (s) 

3  Leaves  alternate. — Stamen  on  the  receptacle  or  the  hyposrynous  corolla,  ^t) 
— Stamens  and  petals  on  the  calyx-tub.-. 


192  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NATURAL  ORDERS. 

4  Ovaries  simple,  distinct  or  solitary.    Vines  or  erect  shrubs,  (w) 
4  Ovary  compound, — wholly  adherent  to  the  calyx,  (x) 

— free  from  the  calyx  or  nearly  so.  (5) 

5  Stamens  opposite  to  the  petals  and  of  the  same  number,  (y) 
5  Stamens  alternate  with  the  petals  or  of  a  different  number.  (6) 
6  Leaves  opposite  on  the  stems,  (z) 
6  Leaves  alternate, — compound,  (yy) 

— simple,  (zz) 

7  Polyandrous/ — stamens  3  to  10  times  as  many  as  the  petals,  or  more,  (m) 
7  Oligandrous, — stamens  1 — 2  times  as  many  as  the  petals,  or  fewer.  (8) 
8  Pistils  separate  and  distinct,  few  or  solitary,  simple.  (11) 
8  Pistils  united, — ovary  compound,  free  from  the  calyx.  (9) 

— ovary  compound,  adherent  to  the  calyx,  (o) 
9  stamens  opposite  to  the  petals  and  of  the  same  number,  (p) 
9  Stamens  alternate  with  the  petals  or  of  a  greater  number,  (q) 
11  Flowers  regular  or  nearly  so.    Fruit  never  a  legune.  (13) 
11  Flowers  irregular  (rarely  regular  and  the  fruit  a  legume).  (12) 
12  Stamens  numerous,  3  or  more  times  as  many  as  the  petals,  (k) 
12  Stamens  few  and  definite,  o — 12.  (1) 
13  Stamens  3  to  10  times  as  many  as  the  petals.  (15) 
13  Stamens  few  and  definite. — Ovary  free  from  the  calyx.  (14) 
— Ovary  adherent  to  the  calyx.  ( j) 

14  Pistils  one,  or  indefinite  (1 — 15),  distinct,  simple,  (e) 
14  Pistils  definitely — 2  united,  the  short  styles  combined  into  one.  (f  ) 
— 3  or  4  united,  styles  or  stigmas  3,  4  or  6.  (g) 
— 5,  distinct  or  united,  with  5  distinct  styles,  (h)    | 
—^5  united  and  the  styles  combined  in  one.  (i) 
15  Stamens  hypogynous, — on  the  receptacle.  (16) 
15  Stamens  perigynous, — on  the  corolla  at  base,  (c) 

— on  the  calyx  at  the  base,  (d) 

16  Pistils  few  or  many,  distinct  (at  least  as  to  the  styles),  (a) 

16  Pistils  (and  styles  if  any)  completely  united,  (b). 

a  Petals  5  or  more,  deciduous.    Leaves  not  peltate. 

a  Petals  3,  persistent,  withering.     Floating  leaves  peltate.  CABOMBACE^E.  7 

a  Petals  numerous,  deciduous.     Leave*  all  peltate.  KELUXBIACE^E.  8 

b  Sepals  4 — 6,  equal.     Petals  GO ,  imbricated  in  the  bud.  IVYIIPH.EAC.E.E.  0 

b  Sepals  5,  equal,  Petals  5,  imbricate.    Leaves  tubular.  SABBAOKKIACI^E.  10 

b  Sepals  5,  unequal.    Petals  5,  convolute;    Flowers  of  2  sorts.          CISTACEJ!:.  17 

b  Sepals  2,  with — 5  petals  imbricated  in  the  bud.  PORTULACAOEJE.  22 

— 4  petals  usually  crumpled  in  the  bud.  PAP  AVERAGES.  11 

c  Filaments  united  into  a  tubo.    Anther  1-celled.  MALVACEAE.  2-i 

d  Sepals  2,  persistent,  capping  the  pyxis.  PORTULACACE.C.  22 

d  Sepals  3 — 5,  valvate  in  the  bud.    Pod  long,  2-carpeled.  TILIACE^E.  20 

d  Sepals  3 — 5. — Petals  imbricate  in  bud.    Fruits  simple.  ROSACES.  47 

— Petals  convolute  in  bud.    Fruit  compressed.  LOASACE.E.  53 

e  Stamens  opposite  to  the  imbricated  petals.     Pistil  1  only.  BEEBERIDACEX.  t5 

e  Stamens  alternate  with  the  petals  or  more  numerous.  KANUNCULACICX.  1 

f  Stamens  6  (tetradynamous).    Pods  2-celled.  CRUCIFEBJE.  13 

f  Stamens  4,  or  8 — 32.    Pod  1-celled.  CAPPARIDACE.E.  1-i 

g  Sepals  and  petals  in  3s.     Stamens  6.    Small  herb.  LIHXANTHACE.E.  36 

g  Sepals  and  petals  in  4s.    Stamens  8.    Climbing.  SAPINDACEJ-:.  41 

g  Sepals,  etc.,  in  5s. — Stam.  5,  monadelphous.    Climbing.      PASSIFLOBACE^E.  57 

— Stam.  5,  distinct.    Greenish.   Climbing.  ACEJE.  104 

— Stam.  5,  distinct.    Yellow.    Erect.  TUKNEKACEJE.  5C> 

— Stain.  5,  distinct.    Cyanic.    Erect.  DHOSERACE.E.  19 

— Stam.  3 — 15. — Fls.  £  ,  very  many,  minute.     CISTACE.E.  17 

— Fls.  monoecious.  ACE.E.  113 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NATURAL  ORDERS.  193 

h  Stamens  5,  alternate  with  the  5  petals.    Seeds  GO.  LEXACEJE.  So 

h  Stamens  5,  opposite  to  the  5  petals.     Seed  1.  ACE^E.  80 

h  Stamens  10,  the  filaments  united  at  the  base.  OXALIDACE^E.  32  • 

h  Stamens  6 — 24  (twice  as  many  as  the  petals),  distinct.        CRASSCLACEJE.  60 

i  Ovary  one-celled.    Leaves  radical,  irritable.  DROSERACE.E.  19 

i  Ovary  2 — 5-celled.— Leaves  dotless,  mostly  radical.  ACE^E.  73 

—Leaves  dotted.    Cauline,  pinnate.  EUTACEJE.  37 

j  Styles  5  or  more.    Ovary  1-celled,  half-adherent.    Sepals  2.       PORTULACACEJS.  22 

j  Style  1,  carpels  as  many  as  the  petals  (2 — 6).  ONAGRACE.E.  52 

j  Styles  2,  carpels  2,  fewer  than  the  (5)  petals.    Seeds  several.      SAXIFRAGACE^E.  61 

j  Styles  2,  carpels  2,  fewer  than  the  (5)  petals.    Seeds  two.  UMBELIFER^E.  63 

j  Styles  3 — 5,  ovary  3 — 5-celled,  3 — 5-seeded.  ABALIACE^E.  64 

k  Ovaries  many,  or  few,  rarely  1,  always  simple.  RANUXCULACE^E.  1 

k  Ovary  compound,  3-carpeled,  open  before  ripe.  EESEDACE^E.  15 

1  Sepals  2.    Petals  4  (2  pairs).    Stam.  6.    Spurs  1—2,  blunt.    FUMARIACE.*:.  12 

1  Sepals  5,  very  unequal,  Petals  3.    Stam.  6 — 3.     No  spur.      POLYGALACE.E.  45 

1  Sepals  4,  petals^,  all  colored  alike.     Spur  slender.  BALSAMINACE^:.  34 

1  Sepals  and  petals  each — i,  not  very  irregular.     No  spur.      CAPPARIDACE^E.  14 

— 5.  Stamens  8.    Spur  slender.  TROP^EOLACE^E.  35 

— 5.  Stamens  5.    Spur  blunt  or  none.        VIOLACE^E.  16 

— 5.  Stam.  10  (pr  more).  Fr.  a  legume.  LEGUMINOS.E.  46 

m  Pistils  many,  entirely  distinct,  simple.  BANUNCULACE.*.  1 

in  Pistils  3 — 5,  united  more  or  less  completely.  HYPERICACE^:.  18 

in  Pistils  5 — 10,  uuited,  with  sessile  stigmas  and  many  petals.    MESEMBRYACE.*:.  23 

11  Pistil  solitary,  simple.    Petals  6 — 9.    Stamens  12 — 18.  BEP.BERIDACE.E.  6 

n  Pistils  3  or  more,  distinct,  simple.     Flowers  all  symmetrical.    CBASSCLACE^E.  60 

11  Pistils  2,  consolidated  with  the  5  stamens.     Juice  milky.  ACE^E.  97 

O  Carpels  as  many  as  the  sepals.     Anthers  open  at  the  top.    MELAsroiiACE^.  50 

o  Carpels  as  many  as  the  sepals.     Anthers  open  laterally.  ONAGRACE^.  52 

o  Carpels  fewer  than  the  sepals, —  GO-seeded.    Styles  2.        SAXIFRAGACE^:.  61 

— 1-seeded.    Styles  2  or  3.  ARALIACE^E.  64 

— 1-seeded.    Style  1  (double).    CORKAGE.*:.  65 

p  Style  3  cleft.at  the  summit.  PORTULACACEJE.  22 

p  Style  and  stigma  1,  undivided.  ACE.E.  78 

q  Leaves  pinnate,  with  iuterpetiolar  stipules.  ZYGOPHYLLACE^E.  33 

q  Lvs.  simple,  toothed  or  lobed.  Flowers  cruciform.  Stamens  6. .  CRUCITER^.  13 
q  Lvs.  simple,  toothed  or  lobed.  Flowers  5-merous.  Stamens  10.  GEBANIACE.E.  31 
q  Leaves  simple,  entire,  (qq) 

qq  Petals  and  stamens  on  the  throat  of  the  calyx.  LYTHRACE^E.  51 

qq  Pet.  hypogynous. — Fls.  irregular,  uusymmetrical.  POLYGALACE^E.  45 

— Fls.  regular — 2  (or  3)-parted  throughout.         ELATINACE^:.  20 

— 5-parted. — Leaves  punctate.    HYPERICACE.E.  18 

—Lvs.  dotless.     CABYOPHYLLACE^:.  21 

r  Pistil  a  simple  carpel,  becoming  a  legume.     Stamens  10 — 100.         LEGriirsos^.  46 

r  Pistil  compound, — 3-carpeled.    Fls.  perfect.     Lvs.  digitate.  SAPINDACE^:.  41 

— 3-carpeled.    Fls.  monoecious.     Cultivated.        BEGOXIACEJ:.  59 

— 5-carpeled. — Stipules  present.     Cultivated.       GERAKIACE^E.  31 

— Stipules  none.     Native.  ERICACEAE.  73 

s  Stamens  on  the  receptacle,  in  several  sets.    Leaves  dotted.  HYPERICACE_«.  18 

s  Stamen  on  the  calyx. — Ovaries  many,  free,  but  enclosed.  CALYCANTHACE^E.  48 

— Ov.  compound,  free  in  the  bell-shaped  cal.   LYTHSACE.E.  51 

— Ov.  adherent. — Lvs.  with  a  marginal  vein.    MYRTACE^E.  49 

— Lvs.  with  no  marg.  vein.  SAXIFRAGACE^:.  61 

t  Petals  imbricate  or  valvato  in  testivation.   (n) 

t  Petals  convolute.— Anthers  i -celled,  turned  inwards.  MALVACEAE.  24 

—Anthers  2-celled,  turned  outwards.  STSBCULIACJ^.  25 

13 


194  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NATURAL  ORDERS. 

u  Ovaries  distinct.    Petals  6,  valvate.    Erect  shrubs.  ANONACE,E.  3 

u  Ov.  distinct.    Petals  3 — 9,  imbricate.    Trees  or  erect  shrubs.    MAGNOLIACE^E.  2 

u  Ov.  distinct,  few.    Petals  6 — 9,  imbricate.    Climbing  shrubs.MExispERMACEjE.  5 

u  Ov.  compound. — Lvs.  punctate  with  pellucid  dots.  AURAXTIACE.E.  28 

— Lvs.  opaque. — Sepals  valvate.    Fls.  small.          TILLAGES.  26 

— Sepals  imbricate.    Fls.  large.  CAMELLIACEJS.  27 

v  Style  1  with  many  stigmas.    Green,  fleshy  shrubs.  CACTACE.E.  54 

v  Styles  several,  or  1  with  1  stigma.    Woody  trees  or  shrubs.         BOSACE.E.  47 

w  Pistils  many,  spicate  on  the  slender  torus.    Climbing.  SCHIZANDRACEJE.  4 

W  Pistils  2 — 6,  capitatate  on  the  short  torus.    Climbing.  MENISPERMACE.E.  5 

W  Pistil  one  only.    Flowers  6-parted.    Stam.  opposite  the  petals.    BERBERIDACEJE.  6 

\  Flowers  4-parted.    Stamens  8.    (Flowers  red  or  roseate.)  ONAGRACE^:.  52 

x  Flowers  4-parted.    Stamens  4.    Flowers  whitish.  COKNACEJE.  65 

x  Flowers  5-parted. — Ovary  5-carpeled,  5  styled.  ARALIACE.E.  64 

— Ov.  2-carpeled. — Leaves  palmate-veined.    GROSSULACEJ:.  55 

— Leaves  pinnate-veined.  SAXIFRAOACEJS:.  61 

y  Leaves  opposite,  stem  climbing  with  tendrils.          «  VITACE.  44 

y  Leaves  alternate.    Erect,  or  vine  without  tendrils.  EHAMXACE.E.  43 

z  Carpels  3 — 5,  styles  short.    Leaves  simple.  CELASTRACE^E.  42 

z  Carpels  3,  styles  long,  slender.    Leaves  pinnate,  serrate.  SAPINDACEJE.  41 

z  Carpels  2,  with  2  slender  styles.    Samara  double.  ACERACE^E.  40 

z  Carpels  1 — 2,  with  1  short  style.    (Drupe  or  single  samara.)  OLEACE^E.  99 

yy  Filaments  10,  united  into  a  tube.    Leaves  bipinnate.  MELIACE.E.  29 

yy  Fils.  5,  distinct. — Leaves  pellucid  punctate.  KUTACEJE.  37 

— Lvs.  opaque. — Ov.  3-carpeled,  1-secdcd.  AXACARDIACEZ:.  38 

— Ov.  of  3  one-seeded  carpels.  SAprNiiACE^E.  41 

zz  Petals  4,  yellow.    Ovary  2-carpeled,  2-seeded.  HAJIAMELACEJS.  62 

zz  Petals  4—7,  cyanic.— Drupe  1-seeded,  but  with  3  stigmas.  ANICAKDIAOE.E.  38 

— Drupe  4 — 6-seeded,  stigmas  4 — 6.      AQUIFOLIACEJE.  74 

— Capsule  CO-seeded.    Ericinese,  73.    PITTOSPORACE^E.  39 

.    — Cap.  3-seeded  (scarlet).    Seeds  ariled.  CELASTRACE.E.  42 

— Capsule  2 — 3-seeded.   Ovules  pendulous.    §  33  OBD.  73 

B     COHORT     2.     GAMOPETALOUS. 

§  Stamens  (6 —  CO)  more  numerous  than  the  lobes  of  the  corolla,  (a) 
.  §  Stamens  (2 — 12)  fewer  than  the  corolla  lobes  or  of  the  same  number.  (*2) 
*2  Ovary  inferior,  adherent  to  the  tube  of  the  calyx.  (3) 
3  Stamens  cohering  by  their  anthers,  (c) 
3  Stamens  entirely  distinct,  (d) 

••'2  Ovary  superior,  free  from  the  tube  of  the  calyx.  (6) 
G  Flowers  regular  and  the  stamens  symmetrical.  (7) 

7  Stamens  opposite  to  the  lobes  of  the  corolla  (and  free),  (e) 
7  Stamens  alternate  with  the  corolla  lobes  (rarely  connate).  (9) 
9  Shrubs,  trees,  with  the  carpels,  or  stigmas  3 — 6.  (f ) 
9  Herbs  1 — 10-carpelled  or  shrubs  2-carpeled.  (2:) 
G  Flowers  regular  and  the  stamens  reduced  to  2.  (n) 

6  Flowers  irregular.    Stam.  (except  in  3  or  4  species)  un  symmetric  til.      (o) 
a  Filaments  6,  united  into  2  equal  sets.    Herbs.  OBD.  12 

a  Filaments  CO,  united  into  1  tube  enclosing  the  styles.  ORD.  24 

a  Filaments  10,  united  into  a  split  tube  around  the  1  style.  ORD.  46 

a  Filaments  CO,  united  only  at  the  base  into  1  or  5  sets,  (b) 

b  Calyx  of  5  leafy  imbricated  sepals.     Shrubs,  trees.  ORD.  27 

b  Calyx  tubular,  5  toothed  or  truncate.     Shrubs,  trees.  STYRACACE^E.  75 

a  Filam.  entirely  distinct. — 8  or  10  in  number.     Flowers  perfect.      ERICACEAE.  7H 

— S  and  16  in  numb.    Fls.  polygamous.    EBKNACE^E.  76 


ANALYSIS    OF    THE    NATURAL    ORDERS.  195 

c  Flowers  in  a  compact  head  surrounded  by  an  involucre.      COMPOSITJE.  70 

c  Flowers  separate,  irregular,  perfect.    Plants  erect.  LOBELIACEJE.  71 

c  Flowers  separate,  regular,  imperfect.     Weak  vines.  OKD.  58 

d  Leaves  alternate.    Flowers  5-parted,  regular,  separate.      CAMPANULACEJS.  72 

d  Leaves-  opposite,  with  stipules  between,  or  verticiilate.  RUBIACE.E.  67 

d  Lvs.  opp.    Stipules  none. — Stam.  5 — 4.    Ov.  2 — 5-celled.  CAPRIFOLIACEJE.  66 

— Stam.  2—3.    Ov.  1-celled.        VAJLEKIANACE^:.  68 

— Stamens  4.    Flowers  capitate.          DIPSACE^:.  69 

e  Herbs.     Ovary  with  5  styles  and  but  1  seed.  PLU^UJAGIXACE^E.  80 

e  Herbs.     Ovary  with  1  style  and  many  seeds.  /     PBDIULACEJE.  78 

e  Trees  or  shrubs.    Ov.  1-styled,  5-celled,  1-sceded.  SAPOTACE^E.  77 

f  Style  none.    Drupe  4—6  seeded.  AQUIFOLIACEJE.  74 

f  Style  one.    Drupe  4-seeded.  VERBEXACZ^E.  88 

f  Style  one.    Capsule  3 — 5-celled,  QO-seeded.  ERIGACEJE.  73 

g  Ovary  deeply  4-parted,  forming  4  achenia.  "  BOBRAGINACE.E.  90 

g  Ovaries  2,  distinct  (often  covered  by  the  stamens),  (h) 
g  Ovary  1,  compound,  1-celled  (placenta  often  large),  (k). 
g  Ovary  1,  compound,  2 — 6-celled.  (m). 

h.  Stigmas  connate.    Flower  bud  convolute.  APOCYNACE  &.  96 

h  Stigmas  connate.    Flower  bud  valvate  ?  ASCLEPIADACE^:.  97 

h  Stigmas  distinct.    Flowers  minute,  yellow,  COXVOLVTTLACE^E.  93 

k  Ovules  several.    Leaves  cleft  and  lobed.    HYDROPHYLLACE.E.  01 

k  Ovules  several.     Leaves  (or  leaflets)  entire.      GE^TIANACE^E.  95 

k  Ovule  solitary.     Corolla  limb  entire.  OED.  101 

m  Leaves  opposite. — Ovary  2-celled.  LOGAJS-IACEJ:.  8-"> 

— Ov.  3-celled.    Not  twining,  j 

m  Leaves  alternate.-Ov.  3-cellcd.   Not  twining,  f  P°«MOXIACE.E.  9: 

— Ov.  2-celled.    Twining.        COXVOLVCLAO 

—Ov.  2-celled,  4-seeded.   Erect.  BOREAGIXACE.E.  90 

— Ov.  2-celled,  QD-seed. — Styles  2.  HYDBOPHYL.  91 

—Style  1.   SOLAXACE.E.  94 

n  Herbs.     Corolla  4-parted,  dry,  scarious.  PLANTAGINACE^:.  79 

n  Shrubs.    Corolla  5-parted,  imbricated  in  bud.  J.VS:JI>-AC: 

n  Shrubs.    Corolla  4-parted,  valvate,  or  none.  OLEACE^E.  99 

o  Ovary  deeply  4-parted,  ibmaing  4  (or  fewer)  achenia.  (p) 
o  Ov.  entire,  4-ovuled,  4  or  fewer-seeded.     Lvs.  opposite.    YEIUJENACJ:- 
o  Ovary  entire,  OO-ovuled,  OO  or  ^veral-seeded.  (s) 

p  Leaves  opposite.     Stems  square.    Stamens  2 — 4.  LABIATJ:.  x< 

p  Leaves  alternate.    Stems  round.    Stamens  5.  IBOERAGIXACEJ:.  90 

s  Trees  or  climbing  shrubs.     Seeds  winged.  BIGNONIACE^.  83 

s  ^ses.    Seeds  not  winged.  SCEOPHULAEIACEJ:.  85 

s  Herbs. — Leafless  parasites.  ^  OROBAXCHACE.E.  82 

-—Lvs.  at  base.  Fruit  1-celled. -  Fls.  spurred.  LENTJBULACEJ;.  Si 

— Leafy.— Fruit  4 — 5-celled.    Leaves  opposite.  PEDALIACEJS.  64 

—Fruit  2-celled.  (t) 

t  Corolla  convolute  in  bud.     Seeds  exalburninous.  ACA>*THACEJE.  87 

t  Corolla  imbricate  in  bud.     Seeds  albuminous.       SCBOPHULARIACE^:.  S7 
t  Corolla  plicate  in  bud.    Seeds  albuminous.  SOLANACEJE.  94 

C     COHORT  3.     APETALOUS. 

Plants  herbaceous,  the  flowers  not  iu  aments  (except  Humulus,  '  15),    2 
Plants  woody, — shrubs  or  trees.  (5) 

2  Flowers  with  a  regular  calyx  (or  a  calyx-like  involucre).  (3) 

3  Flowers  achamydeous,  with  neither  calyx  nor  corolla,  (f ) 

3  Calyx  tube  adherent  to  the  ovary,  limb  lobed,  toothed,  or  entire,  (a) 
3  Calyx  free  from  the  ovary,  sometimes  enclosing  it.  (4) 


196  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NATURAL  ORDERS. 

4  Ovaries  several,  entirely  distinct,  each  1-styled,  1-ovuled.  ORDER  1 

4  Ovary  one,  1-ovuled,  1-seeded,  style  or  stigma  1.  (b) 

4  Ovary  one,  1 — 3-ovuled,  with  2 — 5-styles  or  stigmas,  (c) 

4  Ovary  1,  with  many  ovules  and  1  style  or  stigma,  (d) 

4  Ovary  one,  with  4—  OO  ovules  and  2 — 12  styles  and  stigmas,  (e) 

a  Stamens  1 — 8,  symmetrical  with  the  stigmas.  OED.  52 

a  Stamens  8 — 10,  the  stigmas  2.    Ovary  Go-seeded.  OED.  61 

a  Stamens  6  or  12,  symmetrical  with  the  6  ovary-cells.  ARISTOLOCHIACE^E.  100 

a  Stamens  5,  the  style  1.    Ovary  2-ovuled,  1-seeded.  SANTALACEJ:.  109 

b  Flowers  perfect.    Calyx  4-lobed,  stamens  1 — 4.  OED.  47 

b  Flowers  perfect.  .Calyx  entire,  funnel-shaped,  colored.         NYCTAGINACE.E.  101 

b  Flowers  diclinous.    Calyx  4 — 5-parted,  green.  URTICACEJE.  115 

c  Fruit  3-seeded,  with  3  (often  cleft)  stigmas.  EUPHOBBIACE^E.  112 

c  Fruit  1-seeded. — Stipules  sheathing  the  stems.  POLYGOXACE^E.  102 

— -rStip.  0.   Calyx  scarious-br-acted.  AiiAitA^TACE^.  106 

— Stip.  0.   Calyx  double.   Climbing.  BASELLACE.E.  104 

— Stip.  0.   Calyx  naked.  Lvs.  alternate.  CHENOPODIACEJ:.  105 

— Stip.  0.  Calyx  naked.  Lvs.  opposite.  §  3,  OED.  21 

d  Stamens  (4)  opposite  the  sepals.  OED.  51 

d  Stamens  (5)  alternate  with  the  sepals.  OED.  78 

e  Leaves  opposite.    Fruit  circumscissile  (utricle).  OED.  22 

e  Leaves  opposite.    Fruit  4 — 5-valved  (capsule).  OED.  21 

e  Leaves  alternate. — Fruit  5-horned,  5-celled  (capsule).  OED.  60 

— Fruit  a  fleshy  4 — 10-seeded  berry.  PHYTOTACCACEJS.  103 

— Fruit  circumscissile  (utricle).  AMABANTACE^S.  106 

f  Flowers  on  a  spadix  with  a  spathe.    Monocotyledons.  OED.  131 

f  Flowers  in  a  long  naked  spike.    Stamens  6  or  7.  SATJEURACE^E.  123 

f  Flowers  solitary,  axillary,  minute.    Aquatic  plants,  (g) 

g  Stamen  1,  styles  2.    Leaves  opposite.  CALLITRICACEJE.  124 

g  Stamens  2,  styles  2.    Leaves  alternate,  dissected.          PODOSTEMIACE.E.  125 
g  Stamens  12 — 24,  style  1.  Lvs.  verticillate,  dissected.  CEEATOPIIYLLACEJD.  126 
.3  Flowers  not  in  ameuts,  with  the  leaves  opposite,  (h) 
5  Flowers  not  in  aments,  with  the  leaves  alternate,  (k) 
5  Flowers  (diclinous),  the  sterile  only,  in  aments.  (n) 
5  Flowers  (diclinous),  both  the  fertile  and  sterile  in  aments.  '(o) 

h  Fruit  a  double  samara  (2-winged).  OED.  40 

h  Fruit  a  single  samara  (1-winged),  or  a  drupe.     Stamens  1'.          OLEACEJ:.  99 

h  Fruit  not  winged, — 3-seeded.     Stamens  4.  EUPHOBBIACE^E.  112 

— 1-seeded.     Stainens  4  o*r  8.  ELEAGXACE.E.  Ill 

— 1-seedcd.     Stamens  3.     Parasites.        LOKANTHACE^E.  108 

k  Style  or  stigma  one.     Fruit  1-seedcd.  (m) 

m  Calyx  free  from  the  ovary. — Anthers  opening  by  valves.      LAUPVACE-^E.  107 

m  Calyx  free  from  the  ovary. — -Anthers  opening  by  slits.     TIIYMELACE.E.  110 

m  Calyx  adherent  to  the  ovary. — Ovules  2 — 4.     (Shrubs.)    SANTALACE^E.  109 

— Ovule  1.     (Trees.)  ORD.  65 

k  Styles  or  stigmas  2. — Stamens  numerous.  OED.  62 

— Stamens  as  many  as  the  calyx  lobes.  ULAIACE^E.  113 

k  Styles  or  stigmas  3  (rarely  2 — 4). — Fruit  dry,  3-partible.       EUPHOIIBIACEJE.  112 

— Fruit  a  fleshy  drupe.  OED.  43 

k  Styles  or  stigmas  6 — 9.    Heath-like  undershrubs.  EMPETEACE^E.  11 G 

k  Styles  and  ovaries  5,  scarcely  united.     Leaves  pinnate.  OED.  87 

11  Nut  or  nuts  in  a  cup  or  involucre.     Leaves  simple.  CiTPinLiFERjE.  119 

n  Nut  drupaceous,  naked.     Leaves  pinnate.  Jr  GLAND  ACE.*:.  118 

o  Fruit  fleshy,  aggregated  (sorosis).    Juice  (or  sap)  milky.     AKTOCAKPACE^E.  11-i 

o  Fruit  dry.    Plants  with  a  watery  juice  or  sap.  (p) 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NATURAL  ORDERS.  197 

p  Aments  globular,  racemed.    Nutlets  2-celled,  woolly.  OBD.  62 

p  Aments  globular,  solitary.    Nutlets  1-celled,  1  seeded.          PLATAXACEJC.  117 
p  Aments  cylindrical  or  oblong,  (s). 

s  Ovary*l-celled,  1-seeded.    Fruit  often  fleshy.  MYRICACILB.  121 

s  Ovary  2.ceiled,  2-ovuled,  1-seeded.    Fruit  often  winged.  BETULACEJE.  120 
s  Ovary  many-ovuled,  many-seeded.    Seeds  comous.  SALICACE-E.  122 

D     COHORT  4.     CONOIDEJE. 

^[  Leaves  simple.  Fertile  flowers  in  cones.  Stems  branching,  woody, 

jointless.  CONIFERS.  127 

*!f  Leaves  simple.  Fertile  flowers  solitary.  Stems  branching,  woody, 

jointless.  TAXACE^E.  128 

^  Leaves  pinnate.    Fertile  flower  solitary .    Stems  simple,  palm-like.  CYCADACEJS.  128 

E     COHORT  5.     SFADIciFLOILE. 

^[  Trees  or  shrubs  with  palmi-cleft  leaves  all  from  one  terminal  bud,  and 

a  branching  "  spadix"  from  a  spathe.  PALMACEJE.-  130 

f[  Herbs  with  simple,  rarely  ternate  leaves.    Spadix  simple.  (2) 
2  Plants  frond-like,  minute,  floating  loose  on  the  water.  LEJINACE^:.  132 

2  Plants  with  stem  and  leaves,  rooting  and  fixed.  (3) 

3  Spadix  evident,  in  a  spathe  or  on  a  scape.  ARACE^:.  131 

3  Spadix  obscure  or  spike-like.    Stems  leafy.  (4) 

4  Flowers  with  no  perianth,  densely  spicate  or  capitate.  TYPHYCE^B.  133 

4  Flowers  with  a  perianth  or  not.    Plants  submersed.  NAIADACE^E.  134 

F     COHORT  6.     FLORLDEJE. 

*!i  Flowers  (not  on  a  spadix)  in  a  small,  dense,  involucrate  head,  (k) 
*f  Flowers  (not  on  a  spadix)  solitary,  racemed,  spicate,  etc.  (3) 

3  Perianth  tube  adherent  to  the  ovary  wholly  or  partly,  (a) 
3  Perianth  free  from  the  ovary.  (4) 

4  Petals  and  sepals  differently  colored  (except  in  Medeola,  147).  (c) 
4  Petals  and  sepals  similarly  colored,  (e) 

a  Flowers  dioecious  or  polygamous.    Low,  aquatic  herbs.  HYDROCHARIDACE^E.  136 

a  Flowers  dioecious,  6-audrons.    Shrubby  climbers.  DIOSCOREACE^E.  144 

a  Flowers  perfect, — gynandrous  (stamen  on  the  pistil).  ORCHIDACE^E.  138 

— monandrous  with  half  an  anther.  MARANTACEJE.  100 

— 3 — G-androus.    JBtameus  distinct,  (b) 

b  Perianth  woolly  or  mealy  outside.    Ovary  half-free.  HJEHODORACE.E.  142 

b  Perianth  glafcrous  outside. — Stamens  3,  anthers  introrse.     BCIIJIANNIACE^E.  137 

— Stamens  3,  anthers  extrorse.  IRIDACE^E.  143 

— Stamens  6.  A^ARYLLIDACEJ:.  140 

c  Carpels  many,  distinct,  acheniate  in  fruit.  ALISMACE^:.  135 

c  Carpels  3,  united,  with  the  stigmas  distinct  or  not.  (d) 

d  Leaves  verticillate  in  1  or  2  whorls.    Stigmas  3.  TRILLIACEJ-:.  147 

d  Leaves  alternate. — Stigmas  3.    Scurfy  epiphytes.  BP-OJIELIACEJ;.  141 

— Stigmas  united  into  1.  COHMKLYXACE.C.  152 

e  Leaves  net-veined,  dilated. — Flowers  perfect,  4-partecl.      EOXBURGHIACEJE.  148 
— Flowers  dioecious,  6-parted.  SHILACE.E.  145 

e  Leaves  parallel-veined,  (f ) 

f  Styles,  and  often  the  stigmas  also  united  into  1.  (g) 

g  Flowers  colored,  regular.    Stamens  6  (4  in  1  species).      LILIACE^E.  148 
g  Flowers  colored,  irregular  or  else  triandrous.  PONTEDERIACEJE.  150 

g  Flowers  greenish,  glume-like  or  scarious.  JCXCACEJE.  151 


198  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NATURAL  ORDERS. 

f  Styles  and  stigmas  3,  distinct,  (h) 

h  Leaves  rush-like.    Ovary  of  3  one-seeded  carpels.  JUNCAGINE^E.  135 

h  Leaves  linear,  lanceolate,  etc.    Ovary  6 — GO  -seeded.      MELANTHACE.<E.  149 

k  Petals  yellow,  small  but  showy.    Plant  acaulescent.  XYKIDACE.E.  153 

k  Petals  white,  minute,  fringed.    Plant  acaulescent.  EBIOCAULONACI:^.  154 

CJ     COHORT  7.     GRAMINOIDEJB. 

1  Flower  with  a  single  bract  (glume).    Culm  solid,  sheaths  entire.     CYPERACE.E.  1  fi- 
ll Flower  with  several  bracts  (glumes  and  pales).    Culm  hollow.    Sheaths 

split  on  one  side.  GRAMINEJS.  15<> 

H     PROVINCE,  ACROGENS. 

§  Plants  with  well  developed  foliage.  (H) 

1f  Leaves  few,  mostly  ample  and  from  subterranean  rhizomes,  (a) 
a  Fruit  borne  on  the  leaves  which  are  often  more  or  less  contracted.  FILICES.  160 
a  Fruit  borne  at  the  base  of  the  radical,  entire  or  lobed  leaves.  MABSILEACEJS.  157 
^[  Leaves  numerous,  small,  mostly  spirally  imbricated  on  the  stem,  (b) 
b  Fruit  axillary,  sessile,  opening  by  a  slit.  LYCOPODIACEJS.  158 

b  Fruit  mostly  terminal  and  usually  stalked,  opening  by  a  lid.  Musci.  162 

*il  Leaves  numerous,  small,  imbricated  on  the  stem  in  2  rows.  ) 
§  Plants  with  the  leaves  and  stem  confounded,  thallus-like.  \ 
%  Plants  with  verticillate  branches  instead  of  leaves,  (c) 

c  Fruit  in  terminal  spikes,  and  of  one  kind  only.  EQTTISETACE.E.  159 

c  Fruit  lateral,  scattered  on  the  branches,  and  of  two  kinds.          CHABACE.E.  161 

K    PROVINCE,  THALLOGENS. 

Plants  aquatic,  with  a  colored  thallus.    Fruit  immersed  in  the  frond.  ALGJE.  164 

Plants  on  dry  rocks,  logs,  or  bark  of  trees,  thalloid  or  granular.  LICCHENS.  165 

Plants  growing  on  decaying  organisms.    Thallus  cotton-like,  the  fruit  very 
different,  all  without  chlorophylle  or  starch.  FUNGI.  166 


PART    FOURTH, 

DESCKIPT1VE  BOTANY;  OR,  PHYTOLOGY. 


COMPRISING 


THE   FLORA  OF   THE   UNITED   STATES   AND   CANADA 

(WITHIN  THE  LIMITS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  PREFACE). 


SUB-KINGDOM,  PH^NOGAMI  A  OR  FLOWERING 
PLANTS. — Vegetables  having  an  axial  development,  leafy 
appendages  and  true  flowers,  their  substance  composed  of  cel- 
lular, spiro vascular,  and  woody  tissue  ;  their  flowers  with  mani- 
fest stamens  and  pistils,  and  producing  seeds  with  an  embryo. 
(For  sub-kingdom  Cryptogamia  or  Flo werless  Plants,  see  page 
810). 

PROVINCE,  EXOGEN^  OR  DICOTYLEDONOUS 
PLANTS. — Phaanogamous  plants  having  a  stem  composed 
of  a  central  column  of  pith  enclosed  with  wood  and  bark, 
the  latter  exterior ;  growing  by  the  addition  of  concentric 
layers  external  to  the  wood,  internal  to  the  bark.  Leaves 
mostly  net-veined.  Flowers  very  generally  5-merous,  rarely 
3-merous.  Embryo  with  two  or  more  opposite  cotyledons. 
(Province  Endogenaa  or  Monocotyledonous  plants,  see  paoje 
666.) 

CLASS  I,  ANGIOSPERMJ3.— Exogenous  plants  with  net- 
veined  leaves.  Pistils  complete,  having  stigmas  for  the 
reception  of  the  pollen,  enclosing  the  ovules  within  an 
ovary  which  becomes  at  maturity  a  seed-vessel  enclosing 
the  seeds.  Cotyledons  only  two.  (Class  II.  Gyinno- 
spermae,  with  no  stigmas,  naked  seeds,  and  leaves  not  net- 
veined,  see  page  659.) 

COHORT  1,  DIALYPETAL^  OR  POLYPETALOUS 
EXOGENS. — Plants  having  a  double  perianth,  consist- 
ing of  both  calyx  and  corolla,  the  latter  composed  of 
distinct  petals,  rarely  abortive.  (Cohort  2.  Gamope- 
talje  or  Monopetalous  Exogens,  page  393.  Cohort  3. 
Monochlarnydere  or  Apetaious  Exogens,  page  601.) 


200  ORDER  1.— RANUNCULACE^E. 

ORDER  I.     RANUNCULACE^E.     CROWFOOTS. 

Serbs  (or  woody  climbers)  with  a  colorless,  acrid  juice.  Leaves  mostly  divided, 
exstipulate,  with  half-clasping  petioles.  .  Calyx. — Sepals  3-15,  green  or  petaloid, 
distinct,  hypogynous.  Corolla. — Petals  3-15,  distinct,  hypogynous,  sometimes 
irregular  or  none.  Stamens  oo,  distinct,  hypogynous,  Anthers  adnate,  opening 
lengthwise.  Ovaries  GO  or  few,  simple,  distinct,  the  cell  1 — CO  -ovuled.  Fruit 
either  dry  achsnia,  or  follicles,  or  baccate,  1 — CO  -seeded.  Seeds  anatropous  with  a 
straight,  minute  embryo  in  horny  albumen. 

Illustrated  in  Figs.  10,  24,  132,  143,  162,  241,  243,  233,  291,  294,  867,  3S6,  415,  45S,  2S6,  283,  Ac. 
Genera  48,  species  about  1000,  mostly  natives  of  cool,  damp  climates,  those  of  the  tropical 
regions  growing  only  upon  the  mountains,  and  in  their  proper  localities  abundant. 

PROPERTIES.  Nearly  all  the  genera  possess  acrid  and  more  or  less  narcotic  properties,  some 
of  them  being  highly  prejudicial  to  animal  life.  These  qualities  are  dissipated  by  a  boiling  heat 
or  by  drying,  or  heightened  by  spirits  and  sugar.  The  species  of  Helleborus  and  Aconitum  are 
highly  poisonous,  but  medicinal  when  rightly  used.  This  order  is  rich  in  ornamental  cultivated 
plants. 

TRIBES  AND   GENERA.. 

Sepals  4,  valvate  in  the  bud.    Achenia  tailed.    (Tribe  I.) 
Sepals  imbricated  in  the  bud. — Ovaries  1-  seeded,  acheniate.  (2). 

—Ovaries  2— oo -Deeded.   (3-) 

2  Corolla  O,  or  undistinguishable  from  the  colored  calyx.    (Tribe  II.) 
2  Corolla  and  calyx  distinct  either  in  color  or  form.    (Tribe  III.) 
3  Sepals  as  permanent  as  the  stamens.    Fruit  follicular.    (Tribe  IV.) 
3  Sepals  caducous  sooner  than  the  stamens.    (Tribe  V.) 
3  Sepals  persistent  with  the  follicular  fruit.    (Tribe  VI.) 

I.  CLEMATIDE^L    Petals  0,  or  stamen-like.    Leaves  all  opposite.  CLEMATIS.  1 

II.  ANEMONE  JE.— Sepals  deciduous  with  the  stamens.  Stem-leaves  opposite.    ANEMONE.        2 

—Sepals  deciduous  with  the  stamens.  Leaves  all  radical.  HEPATICA.  3 

—Sepals  caducous.    Flowers  usually  imperfect.  THALICTRUM.        4 

—Sepals  caducous.    Flowers  perfect.  TRAUTVETTERIA.  5 

III.  KANANCULEJ2.— Sepals  not  appendaged.    Flowers  scarlet  or  yellow.  ADONIS.  6 

— rSepals  not  appendaged.  Petals  xanthic,  a  scale  at  base.  KANUNCULUS.  7 

—Sepals  appendaged.     Plant  minute.    Leaves  radical.   MYOSURUS.  8 
IV.'HELLEBOEE^E,  Perianth  regular. 

—Petals  0.    Sepals  white.                                                ISOPYBB-M.  9 

—Petals  0.    Sepals  6  to  9,  yellow.                                    CALTIIA.  10 

— Petals  slender,  tubular  at  apex.  Roots  bright  yellow.  COPTI*.  11 

— Petals  minute,  tubular  at  base,  1-lipped.                      TUOLLICS.  12 

—Petals  small,  tubular,  2-lipped.    Sepals  persistent      HBLLEBORUS.  18 

— Pet.  small,  concave,  2-lobed.  Fls.  racemed.  roots.yel.ZANTiioRinzA.  14 

— Petals  larger  than  the  colored  sepals,  3-lobed.             NIGELLA.  15 

— Petals  larger  than  the  colored  sepals,  spur-like,  equal.  AQUILEGIA.  16 

IV.  HELLEBOEE^E,  Perianth  irregular. 

— Upper  sepal  spurred,  containing  two  spurred  petals.  DELPHINIUM.  17 

—Upper  sepal  hooded,  covering  the  deformed  petals.    ACONITUM.  13 

V.  CIMICIFUGE^E.— Flowers  numerous,  in  long  spicate  racemes.  CIMICIFUGA.  19 

—Flowers  many,  in  short  racemes.    Fruit  fleshy.          ACT.EA.  20 

—Flower  1  only.    Plant  2-leave8.     Berry  compound.  HYDHASTIS.  21 

VI.  PJ^ONIE^E.— Pet.  plane,  large,  showy.    Disk  sheathing  the  ovary.         P^ONIA.  2J 

i.  CLEMATIS  L.  VIRGIN'S  BOWER.  (Gr.  ^/try/za,  a  vine  or  tendril.) 
Calyx  of  four  colored  sepals,  in  aestivation  valvate-induplicate.  Petals 
none,  or  if  present  more  like  sterile  filaments.  Stamens  oo,  shorter 
than  the  sepals,  the  outer  or  all  sometimes  sterile.  Ovaries  oo,  in  a 
head.  Achenia  caudate  with  the  lengthened  plumous  or  pubescent 
style.  2f  Herbs,  or  vines  a  little  woody,  climbing  by  twining  petioles. 
Leaves  opposite.  The  herbage  is  acrid  and  caustic. 

§  ATRAGENE.    Outer  stamens  petal-like.    Lvs.  verticillate.      Fls.  solitary.   Vine No.  1 

§  ('LF.MATIS  proper.    Petals  none.     Leaves  opposite.  (*) 

*  Vines. — Flowers  in  cymous  panicles Nos.  2 — 4 

— Fls.  solitary. — Sepals  panduriform,  wavy-edged Nos.  5,  G 

— Sepals  lance-ovate  with  a  reflexed  point Nos.  7,  S 

•  Erect  herbs,  near  1  f.  high.    Flowers  solitary N  os.  9 — 11 


ORDER  1. — RAXtTXCULACE^L  201 

1  C.  verticillaris  DC.     Stem  ascending  trees  15  ft.  by  means  of  its-  twisting 
petioles.      At   each  node  is  a  whorl   (arising  from  two  buds)   of  four  ternate 
leaves,  and  two  large  purple  flowers.     Leaflets  acute,   1 — 2'  by  £ — 1',  ovate, 
slightly  notched.     Sepals  lanceolate,    acute,  15"  by  5".      Filaments  about  24, 
outer  ones  (petals  ?)  dilated,  spatulate,  tipped  with  imperfect  anthers. — A  hand- 
somf  climber  in  highland  woods,  Vt.  (Dr.  Phelps)  to  N.  Car.  "W.  to  the  Rocky  Mts. 
May,  Jn.  (Atragene  Americana  Sims). 

2  C.  Virginiana  L.    Lvs.  ternaie ;  Ifts.  smooth,  lobed,  and  cat-dentate. — A  common, 
hardy  climber  in  hedges  and  thickets,  Can.  to  Ga.  and  the  Miss.     Stem  8-15  £  hi 
length,  supporting  itself  on  fences  and  brushwood  by  means  of  the  long  petioles. 
Leaflets  2 — 3'  by  1^ — 2',  with  mucronate  teeth.    Sepals  4.  white,  oblong-obovate, 
obtuse.    Stamens  28— 36.  .  Panicles  large,  axillary,  dichotomous.    Fruit  furnished 
with  long,  plumous  tails  (caudaa),  appearing  hi  large,  downy  tufts.     Aug.f 

3  C.  holosericea    Ph.      Lvs.   ternate;    Ifts.  pubescent  both  sides,  entire,   oblong- 
lanceolate. — In   Carolina.      Plant   climbing,    downy   or   silky  in  all   its  parts. 
Panicles  corymbous,  trichotomous,  few  flowered.     Flowers  dioecious,  small,  white ; 
the  linear  petals  longer  than  the  stamens.     Achenia  long-plumed. 

4  C.  Gate sby ana  Ph.     Lvs.  biternate;  Ifts.  ovate,  small,  mostly  3-lobed,  the 
lobes  entire — In  Georgia.   Plant  climbing,  minutely  pubescent.    Flowers  hi  axil- 
lary, divaricately  forked  cymes,  small,  mostly  5  $ .     Sepals  linear  oblong.     Fila- 
ments hi  the    $    flowers,  linear-margined,    without  anthers.      Achenia   short- 
plumed. 

5  C.  cylindrica  Sims.      Lvs.  ternate,  pinnate,  or  decompound;  Ifts.  ovate  (very 
variable),  acute,  sinooth,  membranous. — Virginia  to  Ga.  and  La.     Stems  climbing, 
but  not  extensively,  smooth.     Leaves   exceedingly  various.     Leaflets  3-15,  glab- 
rous, simple,  often  lobed  or  3-parted,  rendering  the  leaf  decompound.     Peduncle 
terminal,  bearing  a  large,  nodding,  bell-shaped,  bluish  purple  flower.     Achenia 
with  short  (6 — 9")  pubescent  tails.     Apr.  May. 

ft.  crispa.     Lfts.  large  (2' — 3'),  broadly-ovate,   obtuse  or  subcordate  at  base. 

Sepals  above  much  dilated  and  crisped,  spreading  or  reflexed. — Ga.     Varying 

imperceptibly  into  a.     (C.  crispa  L.) 
y.  Wdlttri.    Slender  throughout.     Leaflets  3 — 5,  very  narrow,  acute  at  each  end. 

Sepals  narrow  and  scarcely  wavy.     Stamens  sometimes  sterile. — Ga*    Perhaps 

distinct     (E.  Walteri,  Ph.) 
6.  lineariloba.    Lfts.  about   15,  lance-linear,  acute   or  acuminate   at  each  end. 

Flower  more  or  less  cylindraceous  below. — Quincy,  Fla.,  Lav      (C.  lineariloba, 

DC.) 

6  C.  reticulata  "Walt.     Leaves  pinnate  or  ternate.     Lfts.  obtuse  at  each  end,  at 
length  rigid  and  prominently  net-veined  .—Fla.    Lfts.  3 — 6,  stalked  as  in  the  other 
species,  oblong,  ovate  or  oval,  entire,  simple  or  lobed.    Flower  terminal,  nodding, 
bell-shaped,  pale-purple,   much  resembling  that  of  No.  5.     Sepals  1— !£'  loug- 
Achenia  with  long  silky  tails.     Apr. 

7  C.  Vioraa  L.  LEATHER-FLOWER.    Lfts.  ovate,  acute,  smooth.    Sepals  ovate,  thick 
and  leather}' ;  ach.  with  long  plumous  tails. — Woods,  Ohio  to  Ga.    Stems  10 — 15f 
in  length,   striate.      Lvs.  pinnate,  those   of  the  branches  (bracts)  simple,  ovate, 
subsessile.     Lfts.  ovate  or  lance-ovate,  simple  or  3-lobed.     Flower  terminal,  nod- 
ding, dark  purple.     Sepals  ovate -lanceolate,    1'   long,   cuspidate  point  reflexed. 
Tails  14-'  long.     Jn.  Jl 

8  C.  Pitcher!  T  &  G.     -Lfts.  rough  with  prominent  veins,  coriaceous.      Sepals 
lance-ovate,  thick,  achenia  with  short  pubescent  tails. — Iowa,  111.  to  Ark.     Leaves 
pinnate,  those  of  the  peduncles  simple,  subsessile.   Leaflets  ovate,  acute  or  obtuse, 
often  subcordate  at  base.      Sepals  of  the  nodding  flower  ovate-lanceolate,  dull 
purple,  8 — 10"  in  length,  the  cuspidate  point  reflexed.     Jn.     (Hardly  distinct 
from  the  preceding.) 

9  C.  ochroleuca  Ait.      Lvs.  simple,  ovate,  silky,  pubescent  beneath. — Mts.  and 
river  banks,  K  T.  to  Ga.     Rare;  stem  12—18'  high,  sericious.     Leaves  sessile, 
entire,  simple,  2-4'  long,  f  as  wide,  with  prominent  veins,  upper  surface  at  length 
smooth.     Flower  terminal,  nodding,  ovate-campanulate.      Sepals  silky  outside, 
yellowish-white  within.     Plumes  of  the  fruit  long,  straw-colored.    May. 


202  ORDER  1.— RANUNCULACE^E. 

10  C.  ovata  Ph.      Leaves  'broadly  ovate,  glabrous,  glaucous  and  veiny  beneath. 
— N.  Car.  to  Ma.     Stem  simple,  1 — 2f  high,  glabrous  as  well  as  the  whole  plant. 
Leaves  entire,  simple,  on  short  petioles,  the  lower  subcordate.     The  stem  termi- 
nates in  a  short,  nodding,  purple  flower,  with  ovate-acuminato  sepals.    Achenia 

i      with  long  plumous  tails. 

11  C.  Baldwinii  T.  &  G.     Leaves  varying  from  oblong  to  lance-linear,  the  lower 
3-lobed  or  cleft.—  Tampa  Bay,  FJa.    (Baldwin.)     Slender,  1— 2f  high.     Lvs.  acute 
at  base,  about  £'  by  2',  petiolate.    Flower  cylindrical-campanulate,  purplish,  on  a 
long  terminal  peduncle.     Plumous  tails  2'  long. 

12  C.  Flammula  L.     Flowers  paniculate ;  Ivs.  pinnate  ;  Ifts.  oblong,  acute  at 
each  end. — S.  Europe  and  1ST.  Africa,  often  cultivated.      Its  long,  half  woody, 
angular,  climbing  stems  form  shady  masses,  covered  with  small,  white,  cynious, 
extremely  fragrant  flowers.     Lfts.  very  variable.    Fruit  tipped  with  long  shasrgy 
tails.     JL,  Oct.f 

13  C.  florida  L.    Flowers  solitary ;  sepals  acuminate,  smooth;  Ifts.  ovate,  acute. 
— From  Japan.     Vine   12f  long.     Lvs.  ternato  and  decompound;    Ift3.   entire. 
Peduncles  longer  than  tho  leaves,  bearing  each  a  large,  white-yellow  flower. 
Jn.,  Sept.f 

14  C.  Viticella  L.    Flower  solitary  ;  sepals  obovate. — From  Spain.  Tine  long 
and  climbing,  with  ternately  decompound  leaves.     Lfts.  entire,  ovate  or  oval. 
Flower  large,  purple,  tho  sepals  broad,  obtuse  at  end,  often  doublo.     Jn. — Sept.f 

15.  C.  lasiantha  Nutt.  Fls.  solitary,  dioecious,  on  clustered  2-leaved  branch- 
lets;  sepals  oblong- cuneate,  spreading,  villous  on  both  sides;  Ivs.  ternate,  Ifts. 
broadly  ovate,  incisely  toothed,  the  terminal  3-lobed  or  cleft. — Vine  delicate, 
climbing  many  feet,  pubescent  or  villous.  Lfts.  about  1^-'  by  1'.  Peduncles  3' 
long,  the  pale  blue-purple  fl.  !£'  broad.f  Rocky  Mts. 

2.  ANEMONE,  L.  Fig.  361.  (Gr.  dvefiog,  wind.  Most  of  the 
species  grow  in  elevated  or  windy  places.)  Involucre  remote  from  the 
flower,  of  3  divided  leaves;  calyx  regular,  of  5 — 15  colored  sepals; 
corolla  0  ;  stamens  oo,  much  shorter  than  the  sepals ;  ovaries  GO,  free, 
collected  into  a  roundish  or  oblong  head ;  achenia  with  a  short,  rarely 
lengthened  beak;  seeds  suspended. —  2{  Lvs.  radical,  stem  Ivs.  2  or  3 
opposite  or  whorled,  forming  the  involucre. 

§  PCJLSATILLA.    Carpels  many  (50—75)  with  long,  plumous  tails No.  1 

§  AXEMONE  proper.    Carpels  not  produced  into  tails.  (*) 

*  Pistils  many  (50 — 70)  in  a  head,  densely  woolly  in  fruit,    (a) 

a  Involucrate  leaves  sessile,  with  a  single  flower Nos.  2 — t 

a  Involucrate  leaves  petiolate,  with  2 — 3  flowers , Xos.  5 — 7 

*  Pistils  fewer  (15 — 20),  merely  pubescent  in  fruit Xos.  S.  9 

*  Pistils  few  (10 — 15),  glabrous.    Flowers  umbeled Nos.  10,  11 

Exotic,  cultivated  species Xos.  12,  !•'. 

1  A.  Nuttalliaiia  DC.    PASQUE-FLOWER.    Plant  clothed  with  silky  hairs.    St.  in 
flower  very  short,  in  fruit  8 — 12'  high.      Lvs.  long-stalked,  many-cleft,  segments 
linear  or  cuneiform,  incised.     Involucre  below  the  middle  of  the  stem,  sessile, 
subulately  dissected,  concave  or  cup-shaped   in  position.      Sep.  of  the  single 
showy  flower  5  or  6,  1'  long,  pale-purple,  silky  outside,   appearing  before  the 
leaves,  in  Apr.      Tails  of  the  carpels  l£'  long. — Dry  hills.  Wise.,  111.,  "W.  to  R. 
Mts.     (A.  patens  L.     Pulsatilla,  Gray.) 

2  A.  Caroliniana  "Walt.     Lvs.  3-parted  into  cuneate-linear,  twice  trifid  segments  ; 
invol.  similarly  cleft  halfway,  hand-shaped;  sep.  15 — 20,  obtuse;  head  of  carpels 
cylindraceous-oblong. — A  delicately  beautiful  plant,    Car.  to  Ark.    and    ISTebr. 
Khizome  tuberous,  sending  up  many  stalked,  multifid  leaves  and  a  scape  6 — 10' 
high,  bearing  the  2  or  3-leaved  involucre  below  the  middle,  and  the  single  largo, 
fragrant,  white  or  rose-colored  flower  at  top.     Scape  pubescent  above.     Outer 
sepals  dotted  with  purple,  oblong,  the  inner  (or  petals)  narrower,  all  nearly  per- 
sistent.   InvoL  similar  to,  or  less  deeply  cleft  than  the  leaves.   Apr.    (A,  tenella, 

3  A.   heteropliylla    Nutt.     Lvs.   of  roundish-oval,   crenate    segments;     invol. 
linear-cleft  to  the  base ;  sep.  acute,  5 — 13 ;  head  of  carpels  cylindrical. — Ga.  (near 
Macon,  Mettauer)  to  La.  (Hale)  and  Ark.  Khizome  tuberous.     Radical  Ivs.  one  or 


/  ORDER  L— RANUNCULACE.E.  203 

few,  long-stalked  (3—5'),  ternate,  the  segments  stalked,  simple,  or  incisely  3-lobed  or 
parted.  Scape  8—16'  high,  silky  pubescent  above.  Lvs.  of  the  invoL  totally  unlike 
the  others,  the  segments  1— 1  £'  by  1",  placed  (hi  flower)  above  the  middle  of  the 
scape.  FL  greenish,  scentless:  sepals  commonly  8,  all  linear-oblong,  5 — 6  '  long, 
soon  falling.  Heads  of  carpels  !£'  long;  ach.  flattened.  Mar.— Apr. 

4  A.  parviflora  MX.    InvoL  2-leaved;  sep.  5-6,  oval;  liead  of  carpels  globular.— 
Canada  and  northward.     Stem  2—12'  high,  pubescent.     Lvs.  3-parted,  segments 
cuneiform,  3-cleft,  crenate  lobed,  those  of  the  involucre  similar,  subsessile.    Flower 
whitish.     (A.  cuneifolia.  Ph.) 

5  A.  multifida  DC.     RED  WIXD-FLOWER.     InvoL  short-petioled :  lateral  peduncles 
involucellate :  heads  of  carpels  oval.— Rocks,  northern  Vt.  and  N.  Y.,  W.  to  Lake 
Superior;  rare.    Plant  hairy,  about  If  high.     Radical  Ivs.  ternately  divided,  segm. 
cuneiform,  gashed  into  3  linear  acute  lobes,  petioles  2 — 4'  long.    Invol.  2 — 3-leaved, 
similar,  subtending  2  or  3  peduncles.     Involucels  2-leaved,  sessile.     Fls.  of  5 — 8 
obtuse  sepals,  small,  purple,  varying  to  white.     Jn.     (A.  Hudsoniana  Rich.) 

6  A.  Virginiana  L.     Invol.  long-petioled;  lateral  peduncles  involucellate ;  heads 
of  carpels  oblong. — A  tall  species1  in  dry  woods  and  hilly  pastures,  Can.  to  Car. 
Scape  erect,  2-3  f.  high,  hairy,  dividing  above  intxvabout  3  long  parallel  1-flowered 
peduncles,  middle  one  naked,  lateral  ones. each  with  an  involucel  of  two  bracts. 
Lvs.  2-3' by  3-4',. 3-parted;  Ifts.  ovate-lanceolate,  toothed  and  lobed;  petioles 
G — 10'  long,  petioles  of  the  bracts  much  shorter.    Sepals  5,  yellowish  green.    Fruit 
woolly,  in  heads  f '  long.     July. 

/3.  ALBA.    Fis.  larger ;  sep.  white. — Ledges,  Vt.  (Dr.  Robbins.) 

7  A.  cylindrica  Gray.    Invol.  long-petioled;  peduncles  all  naked;  head  of  carpels 
cylindrical. — Dry  soils,  Mass.,  N.  H.  to  Iowa.      Plant  silky  pubescent,  1 — 2f  high. 
Lvs.  2 — 3'  wide,  3-parted;  segm.  cuneate,  deeply  gash-lobed  and  cut-toothed,  petioles 
3 — 6f  long ;   ped.  3 — 6,  1 -flowered,  6 — 10'  long,  umbellate,  sometimes  one  or  two 
with  in  vehicles ;  sep.  5,  silky,  greenish- white,  obtuse ;  heads  of  fruit  !£'  long.    May. 

8  A.  nemorosa  (and  quiuquefolia)   L.    Low,  smooth,  \-flowered;  invol.  petiolate. — 
A  common  and  interesting  little  plant,  6 — 9'  high,  found  in  old  woods,  hedges,  and 
in  open  fields.     Radical  leaf  1,  ternate,  segm.  cleft  or  lobed.     Invol.  of  3  petiolate 
leaves,  placed  in  a  whorl  near  the  top  of  the  stem,  its  bracts  cut-toothed  and 
lobed,  the  lateral  segments  cleft,  sometimes  quite  to  the  base,  so  as  to  render  the 
leaf  quinate.     At  the  top  of  the  stem  is  a  single  white  flower,  purplish  outside. 
Apr.,  May. 

9  A.  Fennsylv£nica  L.    Hairy :  invol  sessik :  ped.  one,  at  length  2  or  3.  lateral 
ones  involucellate. — Shores  and  wet  prairies,  Can.  to  Penn.  W.  to  Ind.  and  Wis. 
Stem  12  to  20'  high;  Ivs.  large,  veiny,  those  of  the  root  5-parted,  segm.  cuneate. 
3-lobed,  pointed.     Lvs.  of  the  involucre  3-parted,  acuminate-lobed  and  toothed. 
First  flower  on  a  naked  stalk.     From  its  base  arise  two  branches,  each  2-leaved 
(involaceled)  and  1-flowered.     Sep.  5,  obovate,  large,  white.    Jn. — Aug. 

10  A.  narcissiflora  L.      Villous ;  involucre  sessik  ;  achenia  flattened. — In  Canada 
and  northward.    Plant  clothed  with  long  silky  hairs.    Lvs.  palmately  3 — 5-parted, 
segm.  cuneiform,  incisely  many  cleft  into  linear  acute  lobes.     Invol.  somewhat 
similar,  the  sessile  leaflets  3 — 5-cleft.    Flowers  several,  umbelate,  white,  on  leafless 
stalks. 

11  A.  thalictroides  L.      RUE  ANEMONE.     (Fig.  361.)      Glabrous,  low;  invol. 
petiolate:  ach.  grooved. — In  woods,  Can.  to  Ga.,  "W.  to  Iowa,  common.     A  fine 
little  plant  of  early  spring.     Root  consisting  of  several  oblong  tubers ;  Ivs.  biter- 
nate  or  triternate,  the  common  petiole  2 — i'  long.  •    Lfts.  like  those  of  the  invoL 
6 — 12"  long,  §  as  wide,  oval,  subcordate,  3-lobed.     Invol.  of  two  ternate  leaves 
appearing  as  a  whorl  of  6  petiolulate  Ifts.     Flowers  several,  white  varying  to 
pale  purple.     Hight  6 — 8'.     Apr.,  May.     (Thalictrum  anemonoides  MX.) 

12  A.  coronaria  L.  Lvs.  ternate,  with  multifid  segments  and  linear  mi 

lobes :  sep.  6,  oval,  close. — From  Levant.  A  hardy,  flowering  plant,  with  largo 
single  or  double  variegated  flowers.  May.f 

13  A.  hortensis  L.  Lvs.  3-parted,  with  crenate,  cut-dentatel  obes :  invol. 

of  oblong,  entire  or  cut  leaflets.  Sep.  10 — 12,  oblong. — From  Italy.  A  tine 
garden  species,  with  double  and  semi-double  varieties  of  red,  white,  and  blue 
flowers.  May.f 


204  ORDER  1.— RANUNCULACEJE. 

Observation. — Many  other  foreign  species  are  ornamental,  and  perhaps  rarely 
cultivated.    They  all  prefer  a  fresh,  loamy  soil. 

3.  HEPATIC  A,   Dill.      LIVERWORT.     Fig.  132,  190.     (Gr.  ijnaToz, 
of  the  liver ;  from  the  fancied  resemblance  of  the  leaf.)     Involucre  of 
3  entire,  ovate,  obtuse  bracts,  resembling  a  calyx,  situated  a  little  below 
the  flower;  calyx  of  5 — 9  petaloid  sepals,  disposed  in  2  or  3  rows; 
corolla  0 ;  achenia  awnless. 

H.  triloba  Chaix  (and  acutiloba  DC).  Lvs.  trilobate,  the  lobes  entire;  scape 
1-flowered,  hairy. — Woods,  Can.  to  Ga.,  and  Wise.  This  little  plant  is  one  of  the 
earliest  harbingers  of  spring,  often  putting  forth  its  neat  and  elegant  flowers  in 
the  neighborhood  of  some  lingering  snow  bank.  The  root  consists  of  numerous 
and  strong  fibers.  Lvs.  all  radical,  on  long,  hairy  petioles,  smooth,  evergreen, 
coriaceous,  divided  into  three  lobes,  which  suggest  all  its  names.  Fls.  on  scapes 
3 — i'  long,  solitary,  numerous,  generally  blue,  but  frequently  in.  varieties  of  white 
and  flesh  color.  In  cultivation  they  become  double.  In  respect  to  the  form  of 
leaves  there  are  two  varieties : 

a.   OBTUSA,  lobes  obtuse,  rounded. — Prefers  the  south  side  of  hills. 

/?.   ACUTA,  lobes  acute. — Prefers  the  north  side  of  hills. 

4.  THALICTRUM,   Tourn.      MEADOW   RUE.       (Said  to    be  from 
0a/l/la>,  to   be  green.)     Calyx   colored,    of  4 — 5    roundish,    concave, 
caducous  sepals ;  corolla  0 ;  filaments  co,  compressed,  dilated  upward, 
longer  than  the  calyx;  ovaries  numerous  (4 — 15);  achenia  sessile  or 
stipitate,  ribbed  or  inflated,  pointed  with  the  stigma  or  short  style. — 
U  Lvs.  ternately  compounded,  with  stalked  leaflets.     Fls.  paniculate, 
often   ?  £  or  $  g  $. 

*  Carpels  mostly  10  or  12,  beaked  with  a  style Nos.  1,  2 

*  Carpels  few  (4—6),  with  sessile  stigmas , Nos.  3,  4 

1  T.  dioicum  L.       $  $  ;  stem  leaves  on  a  short  common  petiole ;  Ifts.  obtusely 
5-7  lobed ;  ach.  about  8,  sessile. — Hilly  woods,  Brit.  Am.  to  Ga.  and  Ala.     A 
slender  and  delicate  plant,  glabrous    and  glaucous,  1 — 2f  high.      Lvs.  ternately 
decompound,  the  cauline  on  petioles  1 — 3'  long,  shortening  upward.    Lfts.  roundish, 
about  £'  diameter,  with  5 — 7  obtuse  lobes,  paler  beneath.    Filaments  filiform,  longer 
than  the  5  obtuse  sepals.     The  slender  terminal  panicle  is  often  purplish,  gener- 
ally pale  green.     Fruit  strongly  ribbed  and  distinctly  pointed.     May. 

2  T.  coriiuti  L.       $  $  ;  stem  Ivs.  all  sessile  (no  common  petiole) ;  Ifts.  roundish 
obovate,  rather  acutely  3-lobed;  ach.  about  12,  substipitate,  ribbed. — Common 
in  meadows.      Stem  3-4f  high,  smooth,  hollow,  jointed,  furrowed,      Lvs.  resem- 
bling those  of  the  columbine  (Aquilegia),  green   above,   smooth,  several  times 
compounded.     Lfts.  1-2'  long,  f  as  wide.     Petioles  sheathing  at  base.     Panicles 
large  and  diffuse.     The  barren  flowers  have  numerous  club-shaped  stamens,  with 
oblong  yellow  anthers.     Fertile  fls.  smaller  and  less  crowded.     Jn.,  Jl. 

/?.  DUBITATUM.    Radical  Ivs.  (many)  and  lower  stem  Ivs.  petiolate.    Ga.  (Pond.) 

3  T.  filipes  Torr  and  Gr.      $  $  ;  Lvs.  cauline :  panicle  corymbous :  ach.  stiped. — 
N.  Car.  (Curtis).      Plant  very  smoooth,  2f  or  more  in  Light.       Lvs.  biteruate,  on 
petioles  1'   in   length  ;   Ifts.    roundish,   obtusely  3 — 5-lobed,    glaucous  beneath. 
Panicles  loose  and  capillary.     Fruit  inflated,  obovate,  slriate,  each  as  long  as  its 
slender  stipe,  acute.     Style  0. 

4  T.  alpimim  L.      Lvs.  mostly  radical :  fls.  $  in  a  simple  raceme :   ach.  ovate, 
sessile. — Can.  and  northward.     Plant  about  6'  high,  glabrous.     Lvs.  petiolate, 
biternate;  Ifts.  roundish,  about  4'  diam.,  crenately  toothed.     Stems  few-leaved, 
terminating  in  a  cluster  of  a  few  nodding  flowers  on  slender  pedicels.     Fila- 
ments filiform.     Style  0. 

5.  TRAUTVETTERIA,  Fisch.  and  Meyer.      (Named  in  honor  of 
Trautvetter,  a   German   botanist.)     Sepals   4 — 5,   colored,   caducous ; 
petals  0;  stamens  GO,  petaloid ;  carpels  15 — 20,  membranous  and  in- 


ORDER  1.— RAiJUNCULACEJS.  205 

dehiscent,  angular,   1-seeded,  tipped  with  the  short,  hooked  style. — 

H  Lvs.  palmately  lobed.     Fls.  eorymbous. 

T.  palmata  Fisch  and  Meyer.  A  coarse  plant  of  the  prairies  and  woods,  Ya,  to 
Can.,  W.  to  111.  Stem  slender,  2 — 5f  high,  terete,  smooth,  terminating  in  a  large 
branching  corymb.  Radical  Ivs.  4 — 6'  wide  by  3 — 5'  long,  rugous  and  reticulate- 
veined,  5—9  lobed,  long-stalked  ;  stem  Ivs.  few,  remote,  the  upper  sessile.  Fls. 
many,  white.  Sepals  orbicular,  concave,  falling  as  soon  as  expanding.  Jl,  Aug. 
(Cimicifuga,  Hook.) 

6.  ADONIS,  L.     PHEASANT'S-ETE.     (Feigned  to  have  sprung  from 
the  blood  of  Adonis  when  wounded  by  the  boar.)     Sepals  5,  appressed ; 
petals  5 — 15,  with  a  naked  (scaleless)  claw.     Achenia  spiked,  ovate 
and  pointed  with  the  hardened,  persistent  style. — Herbs  with  dissected 
Ivs.  and  terminal,  solitary,  red  or  yellow  flowers. 

1  A.  antumnalis  L.    Petals  5 — 8  (crimson),  concave  and  connivent. — A  fine 
hardy  annual,  from   Europe,  naturalized  in  some  parts  of  the  country.     Stem 
thick,  branching,   If  high.      Lvs.  pinnalely  parted,  with  numerous  linear  ^seg- 
ments.    Fls.  !£'  diam.     Carpels  crowned  with  a  very  short  style,  and  collected 
into  an  ovate  "or  Tsub-cylindric  head.    Seeds  to  be  sown  in  autumn  in  a  light 
soil 

2  A.  vernalis  L.     Petals  10 — 12  (yellow),  oblong,  spreading. — A  handsome 
perennial,  from  Europe.     Stem  branching,  1  f.  high.     Lvs.  sessile,  multifid. 

7.  RANUNCULUS,  L.     CROWFOOT.     BUTTERCUPS.     Fig.   24,   241, 
242,  294,   369,  458,386,415.     (Lat.  rana,  a  frog;  from  the  aquatic 
habitat  of  some  species.)     Calyx  of  5  ovate  sepals  ;  coiolla  of  5  round- 
ish, shining  petals,  each  with  a  nectariferous  scale  (Fig.  294)  or  pore  at 
the  base  inside ;  filaments   GO  ;  achenia   oo,  flattened,  pointed,  crowded 
in  a  roundish  or  oblong  head. — Herbs,  mostly  2£,  with  alternate  leaves 
and  yellow  flowers. 

§  Seeds  (carpels)  rough  with  points  or  prickles Nos.  1,  2 

§  Seeds  (carpels)  smooth  and  even,  or  merely  rugous  (a). 

a  Leaves  in  fine,  numerous,  thread-like  divisions,  under  water Nos.  3,  4 

a  Leaves  all  undivided  and  simple. — Stems  creeping Nos.  5,  6 

—Stems  erect Nos.  7—9 

a  Eoot-lvs.  simply  crenate  or  lobed,  stem  leaves  divided Nos.  9, 10 

a  Leaves  all  more  or  less  divided,  not  submersed  (b). 

b  Sepals  spreading  in  flower,  shorter  than  the  showy  petals. Nos.  11 — 14 

b  Sepals  reflexed  in  flower. — Head  of  carpels  oblong Nos.  15, 10 

— Heads  of  carpels  globous '. Nos.  17,  IS 

1  R.  muricatus  L.     Glabrous ;  carpels  aculeate,  strongly  margined,  and  ending 
in  a  stout,  ensiform,  recurved  leak.     Ya.  to  La.     Stem  branched,  erect,  If  high. 
Lvs.  roundish  (!£'  diam.),  cordate,  3-lobed,  lobes  coarsely  crenate-toothed,  all 
similar,  and  on  petioles  1 — 5'  long.     Bracts  close  to  the  flower,  simple.     Fls. 
small,   few.      Pet.  obovate,    yellow.      Carpels  large  (3"  long,   including  beak). 
§Eur. 

2  R.  parviflorus  L.      Villous;  carpels  roundish,  granulated,  tipped  with  a  very 
short  beak. — Ya.  to  La.     Stem  6 — 12'  high,  slender,  branched.     Lvs.  all  petiolate, 
small,  roundish  (9 — 16"  diam.),  cordate,  3-lobed  or  parted,  the  segments  acutely 
toothed.     Fls.  quite  small,  the  yellow  petals  not  exceeding  the  calyx.     Seeds 
scarcely  1"  in  length,  in  a  globular  head.     §  Eur. 

3  R.  aquatilis  L.     j3  CAPILLACEUS.     Lvs.  all  fiiliformly  dissected;  pet.  white; 
carpels  transversely  rugous. — Ponds  and  sluggish  streams,  Arctic  Am.  to  S.  Car.,. 
"W.  to  Rocky  Mta.     The  whole  plant  is  submerged  except  the  flowers,  and  per- 
haps a  few   of  the  upper  leaves.     Stem  1 — 2f  or  more  in  length,  slender,  weak, 
round,  smooth,  jointed.     Leaves  divided  dichotomously  into  numerous  hair-like 
segments,  in  outline  roundish  and  I — 1'  diam.      Ped.  thick,  1 — 1^'  Jong.     Fls. 
smaller  than  in  R.  acris.     Petals  rather  narrow,  white,  except  the  yellow  claws.. 
H-,  Aug. 


206  ORDER  1.— RANUNCULACEJ3. 

4  R.  Purshii     Rich.     Floating;  st.  long;  submerged  Ivs.,  cleft  into  numerous 
capillary  segments,  emersed  ones  reniform,  3 — 5  parted,  the  lobes  variously  di- 
vided ;  reflexed,  half  as  long  as  the  yellow  petals ;  carpels  smooth,  with  a  shortr 
straight,   ensiform  style;    hds.   globus. — Ponds,   sluggish   streams,   and  muddy 
places,  Can.,  U.  8     Stem  1 — 2f  or  more  in  length,  fistulous.     Lvs.  pentangular 
in  outline,  §- — !-£'  diam.,  those  below  more  finely  divided;  petioles  £ — 2'  in  length. 
Fls.  bright  yellow,  emerging  on  forked,  striate  peduncles.     May,  Jn. 

(3.  FLUVIATILIS.     Lvs.  all  capillaceous-multifid ;   fls.  as  largo  as  in  R.  acris.     (R. 
lacustris  Beck.) 

5  R.  Cymbalaria  Ph.     St.  filiform,  creeping,  rooting ;  Ivs.  reniform-cordate,  cre- 
nate-dentate ;  ped.  solitary,  mostly  2 -flowered  ;    petals  spatulate;  ach.  oblong. — 
In  salt  marshes  on  the  sea-coast,  and  at  Salina,  N.  Y.     Stem  round,  sending  out 
runners  from  the  joints.     Lvs.  radical,  ^ — 1'  diam.  on  long  petioles.     Scapes 
2 — 6'  high,  each  with  2  small,  bright-yellow  flowers,  and  as  many  obtuse  bracts. 
Nectary  naked  (not  covered  by  a  scale).     Jn. 

6  R.  reptana  L.     Stem  creeping,  geniculate,  rooting ;  nodes  I-flowered ;  Ivs.  lin- 
ear, entire,  remote. — A  slender  species,  creeping  on  river  banks  and  other  wet 
places,   Can.,  N.  H.,  W.  to  Oregon.     Stem  6 — 8'  long,   round,  rooting  at  the 
joints.     Lvs.  fleshy,   G — 12"  in  length,  mostly  very  narrow  and  acute  at  each 
end.     Fls.  small  (3 — 4"  wide).     Sepals  spreading,  obtuse.    Petals  obovate,  yel- 
low, fading  to  white.     Nectary  covered  by  a  scale.     Ach.  very  smooth.     Jl.     (R. 
filiformis  MX.) 

ft.  OVALTS.     Lvs.  oval  and  lanceolate  ;  pet.  5 — 10. 

7  R.  Flammiila  L.     SPEARWORT.     Stem  declinate  at  base,  erect ;  Ivs.  all  lance- 
shaped,  on  sheathing  petioles. — An  aquatic  herb,  growing  in  ditches  and  swamps, 
Can.  to  N.  Car.,  "W.  to  111.     Root  fibrous.     Stem  G — 18'  long,  more  or  less  de- 
cumbent, succulent.     Lvs.  3 — 6'  in  length,  entire,  or  with  a  few  teeth,  thick- 
ened at  the  acute  summit.     Fls.  solitary,  of  a  golden  yellow,  on  peduncles  ^  as 
long  as  the  leaves.     Fruit  roundish,  twice  longer  than  its  beak,  in  a  globular 
head.     Jn.,  Aug.     (R.  alismaefolius  Geyer.) 

Q  R.  pusillus  Poir.  Erect;  Ivs.  att  pet-iolate,  lower  ones  ovate,  upper  ones  linear- 
lanceolate;  pet.  mostly  but  3  scarcely  longer  than  the  calyx ;  stam.  8 — 10  ;  carpels 
ovate,  scarcely  pointed. — In  wet  grounds,  N.  Y.  to  Ga.  and  La.  Stems  slender, 
weak,  6 — 12'  high,  dichotomously  branched.  Lower  Ivs.  subcordate,  ^ — 1'  long. 
£  as  wide,  petioles  1 — 3"  long,  upper  ones  1 — H"  long,  \  as  wide,  with  minute, 
remote  teeth.  Fls.  very  small,  yellow,  on  long  peduncles.  May. 

9  R.  Texensis    Engl.     TEXAS  CROWFOOT.     Erect,  diffuse,  branched ;   Ivs.  lance- 
ovate  and  lanceolate ;  fls.  minute,  stam.  about  20. — La.  and  Tex.     Glabrous,  or  stem 
puberulent,  12 — 18'  high,  dividing  above  in  numerous  slender  branches  and  pe- 
duncles.    Lvs.  petiolate,  denticulate,  upper  linear.     Fls.  numerous,  petals  yellow, 
less  than  1"  long.     Carp,  minute,  pointless,  in  round  heads. 

10  R.  abortivus  L.    Smooth ;  radical  Ivs.  roundish,  cordate,  crenate,  petiolate ;  cal. 
a  little  longer  than  petals,  reflexed.     A  very  pretty  species  in  woods,  Can.   to 
Ark.,  remarkable  for  the  dissimilarity  of  the  root  and  stem  leaves.     Stem  8 — 1G' 
high,  nearly  naked.     Root  Ivs.  8 — 18"  diam.,  quite  regularly  margined  with  cren- 
ate divisions,  and  on  petioles  2 — 5'  long.     Lower  stem  Ivs.   pedate,  with  a  pen- 
tangular outline ;  upper  in  3  deep,  linear  segments,  sessile.     Fls.  small,  yellow. 
Fruit  in  globous  heads.     May,  Jn. 

ft  MICRANTIIUS.     Hairy,  low  (C — 5');  lower  Ivs.  scarcely  cordate,  3-lobed  or  3- 
cleft.     Fls.  1  or  2.     Mass.  (Sprague)  to  Ga. !     (R.  micranthus,  Nutt) 

11  R.  rhomboideus   Goldie.      Hirsutely   pubescent,   much  branched;    root  Ivs. 
rhomboid-ovate,  crenate- dentate,  on  long  petioles ;  sep.  spreading,  shorter  than  the 
petals  ;  ach.  smooth,  .with  very  short  beaks. — "\Vis.  (Lapham)  and  Can.  W.     A 
low,  bushy,  hairy  species,  6 — 10'  high.     Root  Ivs.  about  1'  by  f ',  often  roundish 
or  elliptical,  the  petioles  about  2'  long.     Segments  of  the  stem  leaves  linear- 
oblong,  obtuse,  oftener  entire.     Petals  yellow,  oblong- obovate.     Heads  of  carpels 
globous.     (R.  ovalis  and  brevicaulis,  Hook.) 

12  R.  fascicularis  Muhl.     EARLY  CROWFOOT.     Erect;  root  fasciculate ;  radical 
Ivs.  appearing  pinnate ;  peduncles  terete ;  carpels  scarcely  margined. — Rocky  woods 


ORDER  1.— RANUNCULACE^E.  207 

and  hills.  Root  a  cluster  of  fleshy  fibres.  Root  Ivs.  on  petioles  3 — 8'  long,  ter- 
nate,  with  the  middle  segment  long-stalked  and  again  pinnately  ternate ;  lateral 
segm.  mostly  sessile,  all  3 — 5  cleft  into  acute  lobes.  Stems  never  creeping. 
Pubescence  silky,  appressed.  Fls.  bright  yellow,  1'  broad.  Petals  spatulato- 
obovate^  with  a  broad  scale.  Beak  of  the  carpels  slender.  Apr.,  May. 

13  R.  repens  L.     Root  fibrous;  radical  Ivs.  ternate  with  stalked  leaflets;  pedun- 
cles furrowed;  carp,  broadly  margined  and  pointed. — In  moist  and  shady  places. 
Early  flowering  stems  erect; ;  later  branches  from  the  base   prostrate,  1 — 3 — 4f 
long,  generally  hirsute  at  the  base.    Petioles  hairy,   long.     Lvs.  hairy  on  the 
veins,  dark  green,  ternate,  the  Ifts.  ovato  or  broadly  crenate,  variously  lobed  and 
cleft,  all  (or  at  least  the  middle  ones)  petiolulate.     Fls.  middle  size,  bright  yel- 
low.    Fr.  in  a  round  head.     May, — Jl.     Varies  exceedingly  in  different  localities 
and  stages  of  growth.     Some  of  its  more  striking  forms  are : 

/?.  LINEARILOBCS.  St.  very  long,  floriferous,  smoothish ;  lobes  of  Ivs.  very  nar- 
row. Fruit  not  strongly  margined. 

y.  HISPIDUS.  Stem  and  petioles  densely  hirsute  with  soft-spreading  hairs ;  Ifts. 
all  distinctly  stalked,  deeply  parted.  Fr.  short-pointed. 

d.  NITIDUS.  Mostly  erect,  glabrous ;  fls.  large,  sep.  reflexed ;  fr.  strongly  mar- 
gined. Common  South.  Probably  a  distinct  species. 

14  R.  palmatus  Ell.     Lvs.  palmately  3 — 5  cleft  or  divided,  with  the  sinus  at  base 
closed,  the  segm.  all  sessile  and  cut-toothed  or  lobed;  carp,  few,  margined,  and 
straight-beaked. — In  wet  barrens,   Car.    to  Fla.     St.    12 — 18'  high,  with  a  few 
slender  branches,  pubescent.     Lvs.  all  petiolate,  pentangular  in  outline,  1 — 2' 
wide,  with  appressed  pubescence.     Upper  Ivs.  of  3  linear  segments.     Fls.  few, 
yellow,  small  (6 — 8"  diam.)     Fr.  compressed. 

15  R.  acris  L.     BUTTER-CUPS.     St  erect,  many-flowered;  Ivs.  more  or  less  pu- 
bescent, deeply  trifid,  with  the  base  segm.  divaricate,  all  laciniate,  upper  ones  with 
linear  segments ;  ped.  terete ;  cal.  hairy,  spreading ;  carp,  roundish,  smooth,  com- 
pressed •  beak  short,  recurved. — This  is  the  most  common  species  in  N.  Eng.  and 
Can.,  in  meadows  and  pastures,  rapidly  and  extensively  spreading.     St.  1 — 2f 
high,  round,  hollow,  mostly  hairy.     Lvs.  1£ — 3'  diam.,  upper  ones  in  3  linear  seg- 
ments.    Fls.  large  (!'  diam.),  golden  yellow.     Jn.,  Sept. 

P.  PLENA.     Fls.  double,  the  petals  excessively  multiplied.     Gardens. 

16  R.  Pennsylvanicus  L.     Hirsute,  with  stiff,  spreading  hairs ;  Ivs.  ternate,  Ifts. 
sub-petiolate,  deeply  3-lobed,  incisely  serrate ;  cal.  reflexed,  rather  longer  than  the 
roundish  petals ;  carp,  tipped  with  a  short,  straight  style. — A  very  hairy  species 
in  wet  grounds,  Can.  and  TJ.  S.      Stem  1| — 3f  high.     Lvs.  2 — 3'  diam.,   Ifts. 
strongly  veined  and  with  spreading  segments.      Fls.   numerous,    small,  bright 
yellow.     Fruit  in  dense  oblong  or  cylindrical  heads. — Jn.,  Aug.    (R.  hispidus 
Ph.) 

17  R.   sceleratua  Ph.      Smooth;  lower  Ivs.  3-parted,  segm.   3-lobed,    crenately 
incised,  or  entire ;  carp,  minute,  pointless. — Grows  in  wet  places,  Can.  to  Ga. 
St  rather  thick,   hollow,   much  branched,   1 — Uf  high.     Lower  petioles  3 — 5' 
long,  with  rather   large,   palmately  3 — 5-pgrted   leaves.     Floral   Ivs.  or  bracts 
mostly  simple,  lanceolate  and  entire.     Fls.  small,  yellow.     CaL  reflexed,  as  long 
as  the  minute  petals.     Hds.  of  carpels  only  2 — 3"  long.     This  is  one  of  the  most 
acrid  of  the  tribe,  and  will  raise  blisters  upon  the  skin.     Jn.,  JL 

18  R.  recurvatus  L.    Hirsute  with  thin,  spreading  hairs ;  Ivs.  all  similarly  3-parted, 
segm.  oval,  unequally  incised,  the   lateral  ones  2-lobed;    cal.  recurved,  longer 
than  the  lanceolate  petals ;  ach.  with  a  hooked  beak. — About  If  high,  in  damp, 
woods.     Lab.  to  Fla.     Palo  green,  branching  above.     Lvs.   H — 2'  long,  2 — 3£' 
wide,  on  petioles  3 — 6'  long.     Upper  Ivs.  subsessile  and  3-parted  quite  to  the 
base.      Fls.  small,  with  inconspicuous,  pale  yellow  petals.      Carp,  ovate,  tipped, 
with  long,  hooked  beaks.     May — Jl. 

19  R.  "bulbosus  L.      Hairy;  st.  erect,  bulbou  at  the  base;   radical  Ivs.  ternate, 
Ifts.  peiiolate,  incisely  dentate,  each  about  3-cleft ;  ped.  furrowed,  cal.  reflexed. — 
This  is  another  acrid  species,   very  common  in  pastures,  mow-lands,   &c.     Rt. 
fleshy.      St.  leafy,  furrowed,  6 — 18    high,  hollow,  thickened  at  the  base  into  a 
sort  of  bulb,  and  dividing  above  into  upright  peduncles,  with  golden  yellow: 


208  ORDER  1.— RANUNCULACE^E. 

flowers.  It  is  well  distinguished  from  R.  acris  by  its  reflexed  sepals  and  its  fur- 
rowed peduncles.  The  lobes  of  the  root-leaves  are  also  rounded  rather  than 
acute  at  apex.  May,  Jn,  §  Eur. 

8.  MYOSORUS,     Dill.      MOUSE-TAIL.      Fig.  286,  287.      (Gr.  /<%, 
(J^vb^  mouse,  ovpa,  tail;  alluding  to  the  long  spike  of  carpels.)     Sepals 
5,  produced  downwards  at  base  below  their  insertions ;  petals  5,  with 
slender,  tubular  claws:   stamens  5 — 20;  achenia  very  closely  spicate  on 
the  elongated  torus. —  (D  Lvs.  linear,  entire,  radical.     Scapes  1-flowered. 
1  M.  minimus  L.     Prairies  and  bottoms,   111.  to  La.  and  Oreg.     A  diminutive 

plant,  remarkable  for  its  little  terete  spikelet  of  fruit,  which  is  often  more  than 
an  inch  long.  Lvs.  1 — 3'  long  and  1 — 2"  wide.  Scape  a  little  taller,  with  a 
single  minute,  pale  yellow  flower  at  top.  Carp,  very  numerous,  blunt.  Apr. 

9.  ISOPYRUM,  L.     FALSE  RUE  ANEMONE.      Fig.  288.      Sepals  5, 
petaloid,  deciduous ;    petals   5,  small,  tubular,   sometimes  co ;  stamens 
10 — 40;  ovaries  3 — 20;  follicles  subsessile,  acuminate  with  the  style, 
2 — several-seeded. — Delicate  herbs,  with  leaves  2 — 3-temate,  segments 
2 — 3-lobed.     Fls.  pedunculate,  axillary  and  terminal,  white. 

1  I.  bitern&tum  Torr.  &  Gr.  Low,  erect,  glabrous ;  pet.  none ;  carp.  3 — G, 
broadly  ovate,  divaricate,  sessile,  strongly  veined,  2 -seeded ;  sds.  ovate,  com- 
pressed, smooth,  and  shining. — If  Damp  shades,  Lake  Erie  to  Ark.,  rafe.  Rt. 
fibrous.  Stems  several,  4 — 10'  high.  Lvs.  mostly  biternate,  the  radical  on  long 
petioles,  segm.  cunoate-obovate,  4 — 6"  long,  on  stalks  of  equal  length.  Fls.  on 
slender  peduncles  1 — 2'  long.  May.  Looks  like  the  Rue  Anemone. 

10.  CALTHA,   L.    MARSH  MARIGOLD.     (Gr.  KakaOog,  a  goblet ;  the 
yellow  calyx  may  well  be  compared  to  a  golden  cup.)     Calyx  colored, 
of  5 — 9  sepals,  resembling  petals  ;  corolla  0  ;  stamens  co,  shorter  than 
the  sepals;  follicles  5 — 10,  oblong,  compressed,  erect,  many  seeded. — 
H  Aquatic  and  very  glabrous. 

C.  paliistris  L.  Lvs.  reniform  or  orbicular,  crenate  or  entire. — Wet  meadows, 
Can.  to  Car.,  W.  to  Oregon.  Root  large,  branching.  Stem  about  If  high,  some- 
times trailing,  hollow,  round,  dichotomous.  Lower  Ivs.  2 — 4'  wide,  on  long  semi- 
cylindric  petioles,  upper  ones  sessile,  all  of  a  dark,  shining  green,  veiny  and  smooth. 
Fls.  of  a  golden  yellow  in  all  their  parts,  1-J-'  diam.,  few  and  pedunculate.  Outer 
row  of  filaments  clavate,  twice  longer  than  the  inner.  The  young  leaves  are  in 
great  request  hi  spring  for  greens.  May. 

11.  COPTIS,  Salisb.      GOLDTHREAD.      (Gr.  KOTTTU,  to  chop  or  cut ; 
referring  to  the  parted  leaves,)     Sepals  5-r-.T,  oblong,  concave,  colored, 
deciduous ;  petals  5 — V,  small,  clavate,  tubular  at  apex  ;  stamens  20 — 25 ; 
follicles    5 — 10,  ,stipitate,   rostrate,   diverging   in    a   stellate    manner, 
4 — 6-seeded. — Low  herbs  with  radical  Ivs.,  and  a  long,  slender,  peren- 
nial, creeping  rhizome. 

C.  trifolia  Salisb.  Lvs.  3-foliate;  scape  1 -flowered;  petals  much  smaller  than 
the  sepals. — Penn.,  N".  to  Arctic  Am>  St.  subterranean,  extensively  creeping, 
golden  yellow,  very  bitter  and  tonic.  Lvs.  all  radical,  Ifts.  sessile,  4 — 8"  long, 
crenate-mucronate,  smooth,  coriaceous,  common  petiole  1 — 2'  long.  Ped.  3 — i' 
high,  with  a  single  minute  bract  above  the  middle,  bearing  a  single  white,  star- 
like  flower.  The  yellow  petals  are  barely  distinguishable  by  their  color  among 
the  white  stamens.  May.  Medicinal. 

12.  TRdLLIUS,  L.     GLOBE  FLOWER.     (Germ,  trol  or  trollcn,  globu- 
lar ;  alluding  to  the  form  of  the  flowers.)     Sepals  5 — 10 — 15,  roundish 


ORDER"  1.— KANTJNCULACE^.  209 

ovate,  colored,  deciduous;  petals  5 — 25,  small,  linear,  tubular  at  base  ; 
stamens  GO,  much  shorter  than  the  sepals;  follicles  GO,  subcylindric, 
sessile,  many-seeded. —  ^  Smooth,  with  palmately  parted  leaves. 
1  T.  laxus    Salisb.      Sep.  5,  oblong,  spreading ;  petals  15 — 25,  shorter  than  the 

stamens.— In  swamps,  Can.  to  Perm.     Not  common.     About  1  £  high.     Lvs. 

deeply  cleft  into  5  segments,  which  are  lobed  and  cut-dentate.     Fls.  H'  diam., 

not  globular.     Sep.  yellow,  greenish  outside.     Petals  very  small,  orange-colored. 

Follicles  about  10,  crowned  with  the  persistent  styles.     This  is  the  only  American 

species.     Jn.     (T.  Americanus  Muhl.) 

2  T.  Buropaeus  L.     Sep.  15,  incurved  petals  5 — 10.  05  long  as  the  stamens. — 
From  Europe.     St.  2 — 3f  high.      Fls.  of  a  rich  yellow.     A  very  ornamental 
plant,  of  easy  culture  from  seeds  or  roots.     May,  Jn.f 

3  T.  Asiaticus  L.     Sepals  10,  spreading;  petals  10,  longer  than  the  stamens. — 
From  Asia.     Plant  about  2f.  high,  with  ample  foliage,  and  large,  deep  orange- 
colored  flowers — yellow  in  some  of  its  varieties.    Jn.f 

13.  HELLEBORUS,  L.    HELLEBORE.    ('EAetv,  to  cause  death,  )3opa, 
food;    the  poisonous   qualities   are   well   known.)     Sepals   5,  mostly 
greenish,   persistent  ;   'petals    8 — 10,   very   short,   tubular,    2-lipped  ; 
stamens   GO  ;    stigmas    3 — 10,    orbicular ;   follicles   cohering   at   base, 
many-seeded. —  ~H-  Lvs.  coriaceous,  palmately  or  pedately  divided.    Fls. 
large,  nodding. 

H.  viridis  L.  Glabrous ;  radical  Ivs.  pedately  divided,  segm.  lanceolate,  acute, 
serrate;  cauline  Ivs.  few,  palmately  parted,  nearly  sessile ;  peds.  often  in  pairs; 
sep.  roundish  ovate,  acute,  green. — A  European  plant,  §  on  Long  Island.  Stem 
2— 3f  high,  thick.  Apr.f 

14.  ZANTHORHIZA,    L.     YELLOW   ROOT.      (Gr.    frvOds,   yellow; 
p/£a,  root.)     Sepals  5 ; N  petals   5,  of  2    roundish   lobes   raised  on  a 
pedicel j    stamens    5 — 10  ;    ovaries    5 — 10,   beaked   with   the   styles, 
2 — 3-ovuled ;  follicles  mostly  1-seeded,  seed  suspended. — Suffruticous, 
stem  and  bark  yellow,  and  bitter.     Lvs.  pinnately  divided.     Racemes 
axillary,  compound.     Fls.  small,  dark  purple,  often   ?  £  $  . 

Z.  apifolia  L'Her.  River  banks  N.  Y.  to  Ga.  Rt.  thick.  St.  short,  woody, 
leafy  above.  Lvs.  glabrous,  about  8'  long,  including  the  long  petioles.  Lfts.  5, 
2 — 3'  long, 'sessile,  incisely  lobed  and  dentate.  Rac.  many-flowered,  appearing 
with  the  leaves.  Follicles  spreading  1J"  long,  ilarch,  Apr.  (Z.  simplicissima 
MX.) 

15.  NIGELLA,  L.     FENXEL-FLOWER.    Fig.  143.     (Lat.  niger,  black ; 
the  color  of  the  seeds,  which  are  used  in  cookery.)     Calyx  of  3  sepals, 
colored ;    corolla  of  5,  3-cleft  petals ;  styles  5  ;  capsules  5,  follicular, 
convex. — ®  Oriental  herbs.      Lvs.  in  many  linear  and  subulate  seg- 
ments. 

1  N.  Damascena  L.   Fls.  in  a  leafy  involucre ;  carp.  5,  smooth,  2-celled,  united 
as  far  as  the  ends  into  an  ovoid-globose  capsule.  A  hardy  annual  of  the  gardens,  to 
which  have  been  applied  the  gentle  names  of  "ragged  lady,"  "devil  in  a  bush,:' 
&c.      Lvs.  twice  and  thrice  pinnatifid,  as  finely  cut  as  those  of  the  fennel.     Fls. 
terminal,  solitary,  encompassed  and  over-topped  by  a  circle  of  leaves  divided  like 
the  rest.     They  are  often  double,  white  or  pale  blue.     Jn. — Sept.f 

2  N.  sativa  L.    NUTMEG-FLOWER.     St.  hairy,  erect ;  fls.  naked;  capsules  muri- 
cate,  not  united.     From  Egypt.     Rather  smaller  than  the  last.     Jn. — Sept.f 

16.  AQUILEGIA,  L.      COLUMBINE.      (Lat.    aquila,   the    eagle;    the 
spurred  petals  resemble  the  talons  of  a  bird  of  prey.)     Sepals  5,  equal, 
ovate,   colored,  spreading,   caducous ;   petals  5,  tubular,  dilated  at  the 

14 


210  ORDER  L— RANUNCULACEJS. 

mouth,  the  outer  margin  erect,  the  inner  attached  to  the  torus,  extend- 
ing behind  into  a  long  spurred  nectary ;  stamens  30 — 40,  the  inner 
ones  longer  and  sterile ;  styles  5,  follicles  5,  many-seeded.  Lvs.  2 — 3- 
ternate.  Fls.  nodding. 

1  A.  Canadensis  L.  Glabrous ;  spurs  straight,  longer  than  the  limb  ;•  sta.  and 
sty.  exserted. — This  beautiful  plant  grows  wild  in  most  of  the  States,  in  dry 
soils,  generally  on  the  sunny  side  of  rocks.  It  is  cultivated  with  the  greatest 
ease,  and  is  much  more  delicate  in  its  foliage  and  in  the  hues  of  its  flowers  than 
the  common  blue  columbine.  St.  branching,  a  foot  high.  Lfts.  3 — 9,  cuneate, 
lobed.  Fls.  terminal,  scarlet  without  and  yellow  within,  pendulous,  much 
embellished  by  the  numerous  descending,  yellow  stamens  and  styles.  Fruit 
erect.  May. 

2  A.  vulgaris  L.  Spurs  incurved;  Ivs.  nearly  smooth,  glaucpus,  biternate; 
sty.  a  little  longer  than  the  stamens. — Gardens.  St.  1 — 2f  high,  with  a  profu- 
sion of  handsome,  smooth  foliage  and  large  purple  flowers.  Lfts.  bifid  and  trifid, 
with  rounded  lobes.  In  cultivation  the  flowers  become  double,  by  the  multipli- 
cation of  the  hollow,  spurred  petals.  They  also  vary  in  color  through  all  shades 
from  purple  to  white.  Jn.f  §  Eur. 

17.  DELPHINIUM,  L.  LARKSPUR.  Fig.  280.  (Gr.  detyiv,  a  dol- 
phin, from  the  fancied  resemblance  of  the  flower.)  Sepals  5,  colored, 
irregular,  the  upper  one  spurred  behind  ;  petals  4,  very  irregular,  the 
two  upper  ones  protracted  into  a  tubular,  nectariferous  spur,  enclosed 
in  the  spur  of  the  calyx ;  styles  1 — 5  ;  follicles  1 — 5. — Showy  herbs. 
Lvs.  palmatcly  divided.  Fls.  of  the  cyanic  series,  never  yellow. 

§  Leaves  many-cleft  into  linear  or  subulate  divisions Nos.  1,  2 

§  Leaves  3 — 5-parted.  the  segments  lobed.  (*) 

*  Spur  as  long  as  the  sepals,  ascending,  straight Nos.  3,  4 

*  Spur  longer  than  the  sepals,  deflexed  at  end Nos.  5,  tt 

1  D.  Consolida  L.      Glabrous,    with  spreading    branches ;     fls.    few,   loosely 
racemed,  ped.  longer  than  the  bracts:    sly.  solitary,  smooth. — The  common  lark- 
spur of  the  gardens,  sparingly  naturalized,  fields  and  roadsides.     Lvs.  in  nume- 
rous linear  divisions.     Jn.,  Jl.     It  has  numerous  varieties  of  double  and  semi- 
double  flowers  of  various  colors.     \  §  Eur. 

2  D.  azuretim  MX.     Pubescent  or  nearly  smooth ;  st.  erect;    Ivs.  3 — 5-parte.l, 
many-cleft,  with  linear-stalked  lobes;  petioles  some  dilated  at  base;  rac.  strict; 
petals  shorter  than  sepals,  lower  one  densely  bearded,  2-cleft ;  spur  ascending ; 
ovaries  3 — 5. — .2f  Native  in  "Wis.  and  Ark.      A  very  variable  species  cultivated 
in  gardens.     St.  2 — 4f  high.     Fls.  azure  colored.f 

3  D.  exaltatum  L.     Petioles  not  dilated  at  base ;    Ivs.  flat,  3-cleft  below  the 
middle,  segm.  cuneiform,  3-cleft  at  the  end,  acuminate,  the  lateral  ones  often 
2-lobed ;  rac.  strict,  many-floioered ;  spur  slightly  longer  than  the  calyx ;  pods  3, 
erect. —  If  Native  of  the  Middle  States,  rarely  of  the  Northern.     St.  3— 4f  high, 
straight,  erect.     Fls.  of  a  brilliant  purplish  blue.      It  is  deservedly  esteemed  in 
the  flower  garden,  and  is  of  the  easiest  culture.     Jl.,  Aug.f 

4  D.  triorne  MX.      Petioles  slightly  dilated  at   base;    Ivs.    5-parted,    divisions 
3 — 5  cleft,  lobes  linear,  acutish;  rac.  feio-flowered,   loose;    petals   shorter  than 
sepals,  lower  ones  2-cleft,  densely  bearded  inside ;  spur   ascending,  straight, ,  as 
long  as  the  calyx ;  pods  3,  spreading  in  fruit. —  If  Uplands,  Penn.  to  Mo.  and  Ark. 
Plant  6 — 18'  high,   nearly  smooth.      Lvs.   roundish  in  outline,  on  long  petioles. 
Fls.  6 — 8,  light  blue,  in  a  rather  loose  panicle. 

5  D.  virescens  Nutt.     Pubescent;   rac.  loose,    few-flowered;  spur  longer  than 
the  sepals,  ascending,  straight,  or  but  slightly  deflexed ;  lower  petals  deeply  2- 
cleft ;  fls.  greenish  white ;  ovaries  3. — N.  Car.  to  Ga.  TV.  to  Kansas.     Plant  8 — 
12'  high.     Lvs.  3 — 5-parted,  lobes  lanceolate,  2 — 3-cleft,  the  middle  one  mostly 
entire.     Petals  much  shorter  than  the  sepals,  the  lower  densely  bearded. 

6  D.  elatum  L.    BEE  LARKSPUR.    Lvs.  downy,  5-lobed,  lobes  cuneate  at  base, 
trifid.  cut-dentate  ;  spur  curved  downwards. — If  Gardens.     St.  5  or  6£  high.    Fls. 


ORDEE  1.— RANUSTCULACE^E.  211 

blue,  and  when  viewed  at  a  little  distance  the  stamens  and  bearded  petals  re- 
semble a  bee  nestling  within  the  calyx,     f  Siberia. 

7  D.  grandiflonnn  L.  Lvs.  palmately  5 — 1  -parted,  lobes  linear,  distant; 
sessile,  3-deft  pedicels  longer  than  bract ;  petals  shorter  than  calyx. — A  superb 
perennial.  Fls.  double  or  single,  in  racemes,  of  brilliant  dark  blue,  with  a  tinge 
of  purple,  f  Siberia. 

Observation. — A  few  other  species  may,  perhaps,  be  found  in  gardens.    All  are 
showy  plants,  of  the  easiest  culture. 

18.  ACONITUM,  Tourn.  WOLFSBANE.  Fig.  283.    (Gr.  dfcovl-oc,  with- 
out dust ;  because  the  plants  grow  on  dry  rocks.)     Sepals  5,  irregular, 
colored,  upper  one  vaulted ;  petals  5,  the  3  lower  minute,  the  2  upper 
on  long  claws,  concealed  beneath  the  upper  sepal,  recurved  and  nectar- 
iferous0 at  the  apex;  styles  3—5;  follicles  3 — 5. — 11  Lvs.  digitate  or 
palmate.     Fls.  in  terminal  spikes.  , 

1  A.  uncinatum  L.    Stemflexuous;  pan.  rather  loose,  with  divergent  branches ; 
Ivs.  palmate,  3 — 5-parted,  with  rhomboidalrlanceolate,  cut-dentate  divisions;  helmet 
(upper  sepal)  exactly  conical,  short-beaked  u^front ;  ova.  villous. — A  cultivated. 
poisonous  plant,  also  native,   X.  Y.  to  Ga.  ff$t.  2f  high.     Lvs.  coriaceous,  dark 
green,  4 — 5'  wide.     Fls.  large,  purple,  3  or  £  near  the  summit  of  each  branch. 
JL,  Aug. 

2  A.  reclinatum  Gray.      Si,  trailing  (3— 8f  long) ;  Ivs.  deeply  3— 7 -cleft,  peti- 
olate,  divisions  crenate,  incised  or  lobed  :  fls.  white,  in  very  loose  panicles ;  hel- 
met soon  horizontal,  elongated  conical,  with  a  straight  beak  in  front. — Alleghany 
Mts.,  Va.  and  Southward.     Aug. 

3  A.  Napellus  L.  MOXKSHOOD.  St.  straight,  erect;  Ivs.  deeply  5-cleft  cut 
into  linear  segments,  furrowed  above ;  upper  sep.  arched  at  the  back,  lateral  ones 
hairy  inside;  ova.  smooth. — A  poisonous  plant  cultivated  among  flowers.  It  is 
a  tall,  rank  perennial,  making  quite  a  consequential  appearance.  St.  4f  high, 
with  a  long  spicate  inflorescence  at  its  termination.  Fls.  dark  blue,  surmounted 
by  the  vaulted  upper  sepal,  as  if  hooded  in  a  monk's  cowl  Aug.  There  are 
varieties  with  flowers  white,  rose-colored,  etc. 

19.  CIMICIFUGA,  L.     BUGBANE.    (Lat.  dmex,  a  bug,  fugo,  to  drive 
away ;  alluding  to  its  offensive  odor.)     Sepals  4  or  5,  caducous  ;  petals 
stamen-like,  1 — 8,  small,  clawed,  2-horned  at  apex  ;  sta.  numerous,  with 
slender  white  filaments ;  follicles  1 — 8,  dry,  dehiscent. —  U  Lvs.  ternately 
decompound.     Flowers  white,  in  long,  .slender  racemes. 

§  MACEOTYS.    Pistil  1,  -with  a  broad  stigma,  and  seeds  in  two  rows No.  1 

§  CIMIFUGA  proper.    Pistils  2 — S,  with  a  minute  stigma,  seeds  in  one  row Xos.  2,  3 

1  C.  racemosa  E1L      BLACK  SXAKEROOT.     Lfts.  ovate-oblong,  incisely  serrate  • 
rac.  very  long ;  caps,   follicular,  ovoid,  sessile. — Plant  resembling  a  tall  Actasa, 
found  in  upland  woods  Can.  to  Ga.     St.  4— 8f  nigh,  with  long,  panicled  racemes 
of  white-sepaled  and  monogynous  flowers.     Petals  4 — 6,  small.     Sta.  about  100 
to  each  flower,  giving  the  raceme  the  appearance  of  a  long  and  slender  plume. 
Fls.  very  fetid.     Jn.,  Jl.     (Actzea,  L.     Macrotys,  Raf.) 

2  C.  Americana  MX.     Glabrous ;  Ivs.  triternate,  segm.  ovate,  terminal  one  cunei- 
form at  base,  3-parted  or  3-cleft,  and  incised ;  petals  concave,  sessile,  2-lobed, 
nectariferous  at  base;  ova.  2 — 5,  stiped,   obovate  and  pod-shaped  in  fruit;  sds. 
G— 8,  flattened  vertically.— Mts  Penn.  toN.  Car.  andTenn.    St.  3— 6f  high.  Lfts, 
2 — 4'  long,  with  coarse,  unequal,  mucronate  serratures.     Fls.  smaller  than  in  C. 
racemosa,  in  a  long  panicle  of  racemes.     Auer.     (C.  podocarpa  Eli.     Acteea  podo- 
carpa  DC.) 

3  C.  cordifolia  Ph.      Lvs.  liter nate ;  Ifts.  broadly  cordate,  3 — 5-lobed;  ova.  I — 3: 
follicles  sessile,  8 — 10-seeded. — Mts.  Carolina.  St.  3 — 5f  high,  terminating  in  a  long 
glabrous  panicle  of  racemes,     Sep.  5,  roundish,  petals  spatbulate,  bifid,  few  or 


212  ORDER  1.— RANUNCULACE^E. 

20.  ACT>EA,  L.    BANEBERRY.     (Gr.  o«r?),  the  Elder ;  which  plant 
these  herbs  resemble  in  foliage.)     Sepals  4 — 5,  caducous ;  petals  4 — 8, 
spatulate,  long-clawed;    filaments  about  30,  slender,  white;  pistil   1, 
with  a  sessile  2-lobed  stigma  ;  berry  globous,  with  a  lateral  furrow,  1- 
celled  ;    seeds  many,  smooth,  compressed. —  H  with  ternately  divided 
leaves.     Fls.  white,  in  a  short,  oblong  raceme. 

A.  spicata  L.  (3  RUBRA.     RED  BANEBERRY.     Rac.  hemispherical ;  petals  acute; 
pedicels  slender;  berries  red,   ovoid-oblong. — Not  uncommon  in  rocky  woods, 
Can.  to  Penn.  W.  to  the  R.  Mts.     Plant  glabrous,  1^ — 2f  high,  bearing  2  or  3 
ample  bi  or  triternate  Ivs.  and  a  terminal  short  raceme  of  white  fls.     Lf'ts.  ovate, 
1 — 3'  long,  half  as  wide,  incisely  lobed  and  toothed.     Petioles  4 — 7'  long,  some- 
what glaucous.     Rac.  as  broad  as  long.     May.     (A.  rubra.  Bw.) 
/?.  ALBA.  MX.    Rac.  oblong ;  petals  truncate ;  pedicels  of  the  fruit  thicker  than  the 
peduncle ;  berries  white. — Common  in  rocky  woods,  Can.  to  Ga.     The  ample 
leaves  are  precisely  similar  to  those  of  a.  and  the  distinctive  characters  given 
above  are  not  quite  constant.      Specimens  from  Castleton,  Yt.,  have  bright 
red  berries  on  thickened  pedicles;   from   N.  Y.  (Torr.)  have  white  berries 
on  slender  pedicles.     The  European  variety  has  purplish  black  berries.     May. 

21.  HYDRASTIS,  L.     TURMERIC    ROOT.      Fig.    359.      (Gr.   vdup, 
water;  the  plant  grows  in. watery  places.)      Sepals  3,  petaloid,  cadu- 
cous; petals  0  ;  stamens  oo,  a  little  shorter  than  the  sepals;  ovaries  12 
or  more,  becoming  a  baccate  fruit  composed  of  1 -seeded  acines  aggre- 
gated  into   a   head. — If  Rhizome   thick,  knotty,    yellow,    with    long 
fibrous  roots,  sending  up  a  single  radical  leaf  and  a  stem  whioh  is  2- 
leaved  and  1 -flowered. 

H.  Canadensis  L.  The  only  species.  It  grows  hi  bog  meadows.  Can.  to  Car. 
and  Ky.  Stem  6 — 12'  high,  becoming  purplish,  hairy  above.  St.  leaves  2  only, 
alternate  on  the  upper  part  of  the  stem,  petiolate,  palmate,  with  3 — 5  lobes. 
Ped.  terminal,  solitary,  1 -flowered.  Sep.  reddish  white,  of  short  duration.  Fr. 
red,  juicy,  resembling  the  raspberry.  Sds.  nearly  black.  May,  Jn. 

22.  P>EONIA,  L.     P^ONY.     Fig.   10—23,  30,  291.      (The  physi- 
cian Pceon,  according  to  mythology,  first  used   this  plant  in  medicine, 
and  cured  Pluto  with  it.)      Sepals  5,  unequal,  leafy,  persistent ;  petals 
5  ;  stamens  oo  (mostly  changed  to  petals  by  cultivation) ;  ovaries  2 — 5, 
surrounded  by  an  annular  disk ;  stigmas  sessile,  double,  persistent ;  fol- 
licles many  seeded. — H  Rt.  fasciculate.      Lvs.  biternate.      Fls.  large, 
terminal,  solitary. 

*  Stems  annual,  herbaceous.     Carpels  2—5 Nos.  1—3 

*  Stems  perennial,  shrubby.     Carpels  5 Nos.  4,  5 

1  P.  oflicinalis    L.      COMMON  P-EOXY.      Lower  Ivs.  bipinnately  divided; 
Ifts.  ovate-lanceolate,  variously  incised;   carp.  2,  downy,   nearly  straight. — The 
splendid  Peeony  has  long  been  cultivated  throughout  the  civilized  world.     This 
species  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  Switzerland.      It  is  a  hardy  perennial,  requiring 
very  little  pains  for  its  cultivation.      Among  its  varieties  the  double  red  is  most 
common.     The  white  is  truly  beautiful.     The  flesh-colored  and  the  pink  are  also 
favorites.     May,  Jn.f 

2  P.  albiflora  L.     Lfts.  elliptic-lanceolate,  acute,  entire,  smooth ;  follicles  1  or 
3,  recurved,  smooth. — Native  of  Tartary.     Whole  plant  dark,  shining  green  and 
smooth.    Fls.  smaller  than  the  last,  but  truly  elegant  and  fragrant.    Petals  white. 
Cal.  brown,  -with  3   green,  sessile  bracts  at  base.      Nine  or  ten  varieties,  with 
flowers  single  or  double,  white,  rose-colored,  &c.,  are  now  mentioned  in  the  cata- 
logues of  American  gardeners,  f 

3  P.  anomala  L.    Lfts.  with  many  lanceolate  segments,  smooth ;   follicles  5, 
depressed,  smooth;  cal.  bracteolate.     From  Siberia.      Distinguished  by  the  long 
narrow  segments  of  the  leaflets.     Fls.  concave,  rose  colored.     Many  varieiies.f 


ORDER  2.— MAGNOLIACEJS.  213 

4  P.  Moutan  L.     CHINESE  TREE  P.EOXY.    St.  shrubby ;  Ifts.  oblong-ovate, 
glaucous  and  somewhat  hairy  beneath,  terminal  1 — 3-lobed  ;  ova.  5,  distinct,  sur- 
rounded  by  the  very  large  disk. — From  China.     The  woody  stem  branches  into  a 
bush  3 — 4f  high.     Lvs.  large,  on   long  stalks.     Fls.  very  large,  always  double 
in  cultivation,  fragrant  and  truly  splendid.     This  plant  is  remarkable  for  produc- 
ing the  largest  form  of  disk  in  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

5  P.  papaveracea  L.    St.  shrubby ;  Ifts.  oblong-ovate,  glaucous  and  slightly 
hairy  beneath,  terminal  one  lobed ;  ova.  about  5,  closely  united  into  a  globous  head. — 
From  China.    Resembles  the  last  in  foliage,  but  is  remarkably  distinguished  from 
all  the  other  species  by  its  united  carpels.     Flowers  white,  with  a  purple  centre, 
often  single  in  cultivation.     Other  species  and  varieties  are  cultivated,  rarely  in 
this  country,  amounting  to  about  150  in  all. 

ORDER  II.     MAGNOLIACE^E.     MAGXOLIADS. 

Trees  or  shrubs  with  alternate,  coriaceous,  simple,  entire  or  lobed  (never  toothed) 
leaves.  Leaf  buds  sheathed  with  membranous  stipules  which  soon  fall  off.  Fls. 
large,  polypetalous,  polyandrous,  polygamous,  hypogynous,  perfect  Calyx  and 
corolla  imbricated  in  bud,  colored  alike,  in  3  or  more  3-merous  circles.  '  Ovaries 
several  or  many,  compactly  covering  the  elongated  torus.  Fruit  of  numerous  dry 
or  fleshy  carpels,  aggregated  into  a  sort  of  cone.  Seeds  1  or  2  in  each  carpel,  with 
a  minute  embryo  in  fleshy  albumen.  (See  Figs.  68,  72,  131.) 

An  order  of  12  genera  and  63  species,  including  some  of  the  most  splendid  of  flowering  trees 
and  shrubs.  Most  of  them  belong  to  the  Southern  States,  some  to  the  Western,  and  a  few  to 
Japan,  China  and  India. 

Properties. — The  bark  is  aromatic,  containing  an  intensely  bitter  principle,  which  is  tonic 
and  stimulating.  The  flowers  are  fragrant  and  aromatic  in  a  high  degree. 

TRIBES  AND   GENERA. 

Tribe  ILLICIE^E.     Carpels  arranged  into  a  single  circle ILLICIXTM.  1 

Tribe  MAGXOLIE^E.     Carpels  imbricated  into  a  cone-like  fruit.* 

*  Anthers  opening  inwards.    Lvs.  folded  lengthwise  in  bud MAGNOLIA.         2 

*  Anthers  opening  outwards.    Lvs.  folded  crosswise  in  bod. LIEIODESDEON.  -3 

1.  ILLICIUM,  L.   STAR  ANISE.    Sepals  3—6,  colored  ;  petals  6—30  ; 
carpels  capsular,  dry,  arranged  circularly,  dehiscent  on  the  upper  side, 
each  with  one  smooth  shining  seed. — Shrubs  with  very  smooth,  ever- 
green leaves ;  exhaling,  when  bruised,  the  odor  of  Anise. 

1  I.  floridamim  Ellis.      Petals  21 — 30,  purple;  Ivs.  acuminate. — Swamps,  Fla. 
to  La.     Shrub  4 — Sf  high.     Lvs.  on  short  petioles,   oblong-lanceolate,  slightly 
acuminate,  entire,   smooth,  thick,   3 — 6'    by  1 — 2'.   .  Fls.  about   H'  broad,  on 
slender,  nodding  pedicles.      Cal.   deciduous.      Petals  purplish  crimson,  linear 
obtuse,  in  3  whorls.     Sta.   30  or  more.      Ova.  about  12  in  one  regular  circle, 
with  short,  recurved  styles.     Seed  polished,  as  large  as  that  of  the  apple. ,   Mcy. 

2  I.   parviflora    MX.     Petals  G — 12,   yellowish;  Ivs.  oblong,    obtusish. — River 
banks,  Fla.  and  G-a,     Shrub  6 — lOf  high.      Lvs.  <j|Mt  .and  leathery,  entire,  on 
short  petioles.     Fls.  smaller  than  in  the  last,  noddiflHpU  yellow.     Petals  ovate 
or  roundish,  concave.     May.     The  bark  and  leaves  of  these  plants  are  strongly 
aromatic  and  spicy,  in  their  properties,  much  resembling  Anise.     The  root  of  tho 
latter  has  the  properties  of  Sassafras. 

2.  MAGNOLIA,  L.     (Xamed  for  Prof.  Magnol,  a -French  botanist 
of  the  17th  century.)      Sepals  3;  petals  6 — 9;  anthers  longer  than 
the  filaments,  opening  inwards;  carpels  2-valvecl,  1 — 2-seeded,  aggre- 
gated into  a  hard,  cone-like  fruit ;  seeds  berry -like,  and  suspended  from 
the  opening  carpels  by  a  long  funiculus. — Trees  and  shrubs  with  large, 
fragrant  flowers.      Lvs.  conduplicate  in  the  bud,  embracing  and  em- 
braced by  the  sheathing  stipules. 


214  ORDER  2.— MAGNOLIACEJS. 

*  Leaves  cordate  or  auriculato  at  the  base.      Trees  30 — 40f  high . . .  .Nos.  6,  7 

*  Leaves  acute  at  the  base, — ferruginous  or  glaucous  beneath,lthick Nos.  1,  2 

—green  (not  shining)  both  sides,  thin Nos.  3—5 

Exotic  species,  cultivated.  Nos.  S — 10 

1  M.  grandiflora  L.      BIG  LAUREL.     Tree;  Ivs.  rust-downy  beneath,  evergreen; 
petals  obovate. — In  swampy  woods,  N.  Car.  to  Fla.  and  Miss.   A  stately  and  beau- 
tiful tree,   attaining    the  hight  of  70 — 90f,   with    a  diameter  of    2    or   3f  at 
base.     Its  form  in  open  ground  is  pyramidal.     Bark  smooth,  gray,  resembling 
that  of  the    beech.      Lvs.  6 — 8'  long,  thick  and  firm,  oval-oblong,  entire,  dark 
green  and  shining  above,  clothed  with  a  rust-colored  tomentum  beneath.     Fls. 
pure  white,   strongly  fragrant,    8   or  9'   broad.      The-  seeds   after  quitting  the 
cells  of  the   ovoid   fruit  remain  several  days  suspended  on  a  white  thread. 
May. 

2  M.  glauca  L.     "WHITE  BAY.     BEAVER  TREE.     Shrub  or  small  tree ;  Ivs.  oval, 
obtuse,  gaucous-white  beneath ;  petals  ovate  or  roundish,  erect. — Native  in  marshy 
grounds,  Mass,  to  La.,  chiefly  found  near  the  coast.     It  is  a  fine  shrub,  5 — 20  f. 
high,  with  a  grayish  bark,  crooked,  divaricate  branches.     Lvs.  beneath  remark- 
ably pale,  silky  when  }roung,  3 — 4'  long,  8'  on  the  young  shoots,  entire,  nearly 
persistent  southward.      Fls.  2'  broad,  cup-shaped,  with  white,  concave  petals, 
very  fragrant.     May  (South) — JL 

3  M.  acuminata   L.    CUCUMBER  TREE.    Lvs.  oval,  acuminate,  pubescent  beneath : 
petals  obovate,  obtusish. — Groves  near  the  Falls  of  Niagara,  but  more  abundant  in  the 
Southern  States.      It  is  a  noble  forest  tree.      Trunk  perfectly  straight,  4 — 5f 
diam.,  GO' — 80f  high,  bearing  an  ample  and  regular  summit.      Lvs:  very  acumi- 
nate     Fls.  5 — 6'  diam.,  bluish,  sometimes  yellowish-white,  numerous,  and  finely 
contrasted  with  the  rich,  dark  foliage.      Cones  of  fruit  about  3'  long,  cylindric, 
bearing  some  resemblance  to  a  small  cucumber.     May. 

4  M.   umbrella  Lam.      UMBRELLA  TREE.      Lvs.   deciduous,   cuneate-lanceolale, 
silky  when  young ;  sep.  3,  reflexed;  pet.  9,  narrow-lanceolate,  acute. — A  small  tree 
20 — 30f  high,  common  in  the  southern  States,  extending  north  to  southern  N.  Y. 
and  0.     Branches  irregular.     Lvs.  16 — 20'  by  6 — 8',  appearing  whorled  at  the 
end  of  the  branches  in  the  form  of  an  umbrella.     Fls.  terminal,  white,  7 — 8' 
diam.     Fr.  conical,  4 — 5'  long,  rose-colored  when  ripe.     May,  Jn. 

5  M.  macrophylla  MX.     Lvs.  obovate-spatulate,  cordate;  pet.  rhomb-ovate,  white, 
purple  inside  at  base. — River  banks,  Chattahouchee  to  Red  R.  (Dr.  Hale),  north  to 
the  Tenn.  (Miss  Carpenter),  and  to  the  Ky.  R.    A  small  tree  30— 50f  high,  8—10' 
diam.     Lvs.  with  a  strong  midvein,  often,  on  young  shoots,  3f  in  length  by  If  in 
breadth,  glaucous-white  beneath.     Fls.  magnificent,  the  separate  petals  measuring 
G — 8'  in  length.     Sepals  erect,  lance-linear.     June. 

6  M.   Fraseri   Walt.     Lvs.   obovate-spatulate,   auriculate  at  the  narrowed  base, 
glabrous;  pet.  pure  white. — A  slender  tree,  25 — 35f  high,  Fla.  northward  to  Va. 
and  Ky.     Bark  smooth,  light-gray.     Lvs.  G — 9'  long.  4—6'  broad  above,  much 
narrowed  below,  and  ending  at  base  in  peculiar  ear-shaped  lobes.     Sep.  3,  greenish 
on  the  back.   Pet.  G,  lance-ovate,  thick,  2^ — 3'  long,  strongly  aromatic.   Apr.  May. 

7  M.  cordata  MX.     Lvs.  broadly  ovate,  subcordate,  acute,  whitish  and  pubescent 
beneath;  pet.  6 — 9,  oblong,   yellow. — The  yellow  flowered  species  inhabits  the 
upland  regions  of  Ga.  and  Car.     Trunk  straight,  40 — 50f  high,  covered  with  a 
deeply  furrowed  bark.   Lvs.  long-petioled,  4 — 6  by  3 — 4',  smooth,  and  entire.  Fls. 
about  4'  diam.,  marked  within  with  fine  red  lines.    Fr.  cylindrical,  3'  long.    May. 

8  M.  fuscata.     Lvs.   evergreen,  elliptic  or  oblong,  clothed  with  fuscous  down 
when  young,  at  length  glabrous ;  branches  also  fuscous-tonientous ;  fls.  erect. — 
From  China.     Shrub  3f  high.     Fls.  brownish. 

9  M.  obovata  L.     Lvs.  deciduous,  obovate,  acute,  strongly  veined,  glabrous  : 
fls.  erect ;   sep.   3 ;  petals  6 ;  obovate. — From  China.     Shrub  Gf  high,  opening  its 
erect,  cup- shaped,  rose-purple  fls.  in  May. 

10  M.  conspicua  L.    YULAN.    Lvs.  deciduous,  obovate,  abruptly  acuminate, 
the  jTounger  pubescent;  sep.  none  or  very  small;  pet.  6 — 9,  white  or  rose  color. — 
From  China.     Shrub  or  small  tree,  10 — 30f  high,  with  numerous  white,  fragrant 
flowers  appearing  early  in  spring. 


ORDEE  3.—  ANOXCAE^E.  215 


3.  LIRIODENDRON,  L.  TULIP  TREE.  (Gr.  Aetptov,  a  lily  ; 
a  tree.)  Sepals  3,  reflexed,  caducous  ;  petals  6,  erect  ;  carpels  imbricated 
in  a  cone,  1  —  2-seeded,  indehiscent  and  attenuated  at  apex  into  a  lance- 
olate whig.  —  Tree,  with  showy,  bell-shaped,  upright  flowers.  Vernation 
induplicate.  Stipules  large,  oval,  caducous.  In  the  bud,  each  leaf 
bends  inward  to  an  inverted  position.,  infolds  all  that  is  within  it,  and  is 
in  itself  infolded  by  its  pair  of  stipules  and  by  the  next  lower  leaf,  and 
so  on;  as  seen  in  Fig.  000 

L.  tulipifera.  TULIP  TREE.  TTniTE-TVooD.  POPLAR.  A  fine  tree,  one  of 
most  remarkable  of  the  American  forests,  Can.  to  La.,  especially  abundant  in 
the  "Western  States.  It  is  ordinarily  about  80f  high,  with  a  diam.  of  2  or  3f, 
but  along  the  Ohio  and  Miss,  rivers  it  grows  much  larger.  Near  Bloomington, 
Ind.,  we  measured  a  tree  of  this  species  which  had  been  recently  felled.  Its  cir- 
cumference 4f  from  the  ground  was  23f;  30f  from  the  ground  its  diam.  was 
5f  ;  the  whole  hight  125£  The  trunk  is  perfectly  straight  and  cylindric.  At 
top  it  divides  abruptly  into  coarse,  crooked,  rather  unsightly  branches.  Lvs. 
dark-green,  smooth,  truncate  at  the  end,  with  2  lateral  lobes,  3  —  5'  in  length  and 
breadth,  on  long  petioles.  In  May  and  June  it  puts  forth  numerous  campanulate 
flowers,  greenish  yellow,  orange  within,  solitary,  broader  than  the  tulip,  and 
erect.  The  wood  is  extensively  used  as  a  substitute  for  pine. 

ORDER   III.     ANONACE^.     AXONADS. 

Trees  or  shrubs  with  naked  buds,  entire,  alternate  Ivs.  destitute  of  stipules.  Fls. 
usually  green  or  brown,  axillary,  hypogynous,  valvate  in  aestivation.  Sepals  3; 
petals  6,  hi  two  circles,  sometimes  coherent.  Stamens  oo,  with  an  enlarged  con- 
nectile,  short  filament,  and  large  torus.  Ova.  several  or  oo,  separate  or  coherent, 
fleshy  or  not,  in  fruit.  Embryo  minute  in  the  end  of  ruminated  albumen. 

Genera  20,  species  300,  chiefly  natives  within  the  tropics  of  both  hemispheres.  Four  species 
are  found  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  all  of  the  following  genus.  The  Anonads  are 
generally  aromatic  iu  all  their  parts.  Their  pulpy  fruit,  as  the  custard  apples,  are  sweet  and 
esculent. 

ASIMlNA  Adans.  PAPAW.  Fig.  113.  Sepals  3,  petals  6,  the  outer 
row  larger  than  the  inner  ;  stamens  densely  packed  in  a  spherical  mass  ; 
pistils  several,  distinct,  ripening  but  few,  which  become  large,  oblong, 
pulpy  fruits  with  many  flat  seeds.  —  Shrubs  or  small  trees,  with  brown- 
ish, axillary,  solitary  flowers. 

*  Flowers  appearing  before  the  leaves  ...........................................  Nos.  1,  2. 

*  Flowers  appearing  with  the  leaves.  ............................................  Nos.  8,  4. 

1  A.  triloba  Dunal.     Lvs.  obovate-oblong,  acuminate  ;  pet.  dark  purple,  exterior 
orbicular,  3  or  4  times  as  long  as  the  sep.  —  A  small  and  beautiful  tree,  15  —  20f  high, 
on  banks  of  streams,  Mid.,  Southern  and  Western  States.   Branches  and  Ivs.  nearly 
glabrous,  the  latter  8  —  12'  by  3—4',  very  smooth  and  entire,  tapering  to  very  short 
petioles.     Fls.  1'  broad,  precocious.     Fr.  about  1'  thick  and  3'  long,  ovoid-oblong, 
about  8-seeded,  yellowish,  fragrant,  eatable,  ripe  in  October.     Fls.  in  March,  Apr. 
(Uvaria,  Torr.  and  Gr.     Anona,  L.). 

2  A.  parviflora  Dunal.      Lvs.  obovate-oval,  acuminate;  pet.  greenish-purple,  the 
outer  oval,  hardly  twice  the  length  of  the  sep.  —  "Woods  near  the  coast,  from  Car.  to 
Fla.  and  La.     Shrub  2  —  3f  high,  smaller  every  way  than  No.  1.     Lvs.  about  half 
as  large,  glabrous,  obtuse-pointed,  tapering  to  the  base.     Fls.  less  than  half  as 
large,  opening  while  the  branches  are  naked.     Fr.  roundish,  about  1'  long.     May. 

3  A.  grandiflora  Dunal.      Lvs.  obovate-oblong,  obtuse,   grayish-tomentous  both 
sides;  outer  pet.  very  large,  yellowish  white.  —  Pine  woods,  Ga..  and  Fla.     Shrub 
2  —  3f  high,  its  young  branches  also  tomentpus.     Peduncle  and  calyx  woolly,  of 
about  equal  length.     Outer  petals  about  2'  in  length,  oval  or  obovate,  obtuse, 
6  —  8  times  longer  than  the  oblong,  brownish,  inner  petals.     Apr. 


216          •        ORDEB  5.— MENISPERMACEvE.— MEXISPERMADS. 

4  A.  pigmcea  Dunal.  DWARF  PAPAW.  Lms.  coriaceous,  evergreen,  linear- 
lanceolate  or  linear-oUanceolate,  or  lin. -oblong  or  spatulate,  etc.,  glabrous;  pet. 
reddish-brown,  obovate-oblong. — Shrub  6 — 12'  high,  sandy  plains,  Ga.,  and  Fla. 
Lvs.  very  variable  in  form,  3 — 6'  long,  usually  very  narrow,  often  obovate  or 
elliptical.  Pet.  about  1'  in  length.  Carp,  ripening  about  3,  1'  long  in  fruit, 
erect.  Apr. 

ORDER  IV.     SCHIZANDRACEJS. 

Scrambling  shrubs  with  alternate,  simple,  exstipulate,  punctate  leaves  ;  with  Fls. 
diclinous,  axillary,  small,  hypogytious  and  polygynous ;  .with  Gal.  and  cor.  3-merous, 
in  two  or  several  rows,  imbricated ;  with  Stam.  few  or  many,  on  very  short  filaments, 
condensed  on  a  roundish  torus.  Ova.  few  or  coherent,  becoming  baccate,  1 — 2-seeded 
in  fruit.  Seeds  suspended ;  embryo  minute,  in  solid  albumen. 

Genera  5,  species  12,  belonging'to  India,  Japan,  and  the  United  States. 

SCHIZANDRA  MX.  (Gr.  GX^O),  to  cut,  dvSpa,  stamens ;  the  stam- 
ens are  cleft.)  5*  Sepals  and  petals  9 — 12,  similar,  roundish,  concave  ; 
stamens  5,  anthers  connate ;  carpels  at  first  aggregated  in  a  roundish 
head,  becoming  in  fruit  scattered  on  the  elongating,  filiform  torus. — A 
trailing  shrub  with  entire  or  repandly  denticulate  leaves,  and  small 
crimson  flowers. 
S.  coccinea  MX.  A  handsome  plant  in  damp  woods,  S.  Car.,  Ga.,  to  La.  St.  ]0 

or  12t'  long.     Lvs.  alternate,  ovate  or  oval,  tapering  at  each  end  or  somewhat 

cordate  at  base.     Fls.  axillary,  solitary,  on  slender  stalks,  the  upper  ones  stami- 

nato.     Carp,  and  torus  red  when  mature.     May,  Jn. 

ORDER  V.     MENISPERMACE^E.     MENISPERMADS. 

Shrubs  climbing  or  twining,  with  alternate,  palmate-veined,  exstipulate  leaves. 
Fls.  dioecious,  rarely  £  or  2  $  $,  hypogynous,  3: — 6-gynous.  Sepals  and  petals  simi- 
lar, in  3  or  more  circles,  imbricated  in  the  bud.  Stam.  equal  in  number  to  the  petals 
and  opposite  to  them,  or  3  or  4  times  as  many.  Fruit  a  1-seeded  drupe  with  a  large 
or  long  curved  embryo  in  scanty  albumen.  (Illust.  in  Fig.  147.) 

This  curious  order  consists  of  44  genera  and  302  species,  most  of  them  natives  of  tropical  Asia 
and  America,  where  they  become,  in  the  forests,  woody  climbers  of  great  t-ize. 

Properties. — A  few  plants  of  this  order  contain  a  bitter  principle  in  their  roots.  A  foreign 
species  of  Menispennum  yields  the  columbo  of  the  shops,  which  is  a  valuable  tonic;  another 
genus,  Anamirta  cocculus  of  India,  furnishes  the  Indian  cockle,  so  intoxicating  to  fishes. 

GENERA. 

$  Stamens  12—20,  sep.  4—8,  nut  moon-shaped.    Lvs,  peltate MEXISPERMUM.     1 

$  Stamens  6  ;  sepals  6 ;  nut  moon-shaped.     Lvs.  sinuate,  3-lobed COCCULUS.  2 

$  Stamens  6  ;  sepals  G ;  nut  cup-shaped.     Lvs.  deeply  5-lobed CALYCOCAKPUM.  3 

t.  MENISPERMUM,  L.  MOOX-SEED.  (Gr.^vrj,  the  moon  ;  Girt-p^a, 
seed ;  from  the  crescent  form  of  the  seed.)  Fls.  ?  $  ;  sepals  4 — 8  ; 
petals  4 — 8,  minute,  retusc  ;  $  stamens  12 — 20,  as  long  as  the  sepals, 
anthers  4-celled ;  9  ovaries  and  styles  2 — 4  ;  drupes  1 — 3-seeded  ; 
seeds  lunate  and  compressed. — Fls.  white,  in  axillary  clusters. 

M.  Canadense  L.  St.  climbing;  Ivs.  roundish,  cordate,  angular,  peltate,  the 
petiole  inserted  near  the  base  ;  rac.  compound ;  petals,  6 — 7,  small. — In  woods 
and  hedges  near  streams.  Can.  to  Car.  "W.  to  the  Miss.  Sts.  round,  striate, 
8 — 12f  long.  Lvs.  4 — 5'  diam.,  generally  5-angled,  smooth,  pale  beneath,  on 
petioles  3— 5r  long.  Fls.  in  axillary  clusters,  small,  yellow.  Drupes  about  4" 
diam.,  black,  resembling  grapes.  The  root  is  perennial,  and  in  medicine  has  the 
properties  of  a  tonic.  Jl. 

(3.  LOBATUM,  has  the  leaves  lobed. 


ORDER  6.—  BERBERIDACE^E.  2  IT 

X 

2.  COCCULUS,  DC.  (Diminutive,  from  Lat.  coccum,  a  berry.) 
Fls.  ?  $  .  .Sepals,  petals  and  stamens  6  ;  anthers  4  -celled  ;  ?  ovaries 
3  to  6  ;  drupe  globular-compressed,  nut  curved  as  in  Menisperamm. 
—  Fls.  in  axillary  panicles. 

C.  Caroliniamis  DC.  —  In  woods-  along  rivers,  S.  111.  to  Ga.  St.  round,  slender, 
trailing:.  Lvs.  pubescent,  at  length  glabrous  above,  broadly  ovate  or  cordate, 
mucronate,  entire  or  sinuate-lobed,  sometimes  hastately  3-lobed,  2'  to  3'  diam., 
petioles  half  as  long.  Fls.  very  small,  greenish.  Pet.  of  the  sterile  fls.  with 
inflected  auricles  at  the  base  of  each.  Drapes  red,  1  —  3  together,  2"  wide,  the 
nut  curved  almost  into  a  circle  and  finely  crenated.  Jn.,  Jl. 


3.  CALYCOCARPUM,  Nutt.  CUP-SEED.  (Gr.  KaAv£  a  cup; 
tfaprro^,  fruit.)  Sepals  6  ;  petals  0  ;  5  stamens  12,  anthers  2-celled  ; 
$  stamens  6,  abortive  ;  ovaries  3  ;  stigma  fimbriate-radiate  ;  drupe 
oval  with  the  putamen  deeply  excavated  in  front  and  cup-shaped.  —  Fls. 
greenish  white,  in  long  axillary  panicles. 

C.  Lyoni  Xutt.  Ga.  (Mettauer)  to  Ky.  A  slender  vine,  very  smooth,  ascend- 
ing many  feet.  Lvs.  large,  thin,  4  —  8'  diam.,  the  lobes  dilated  above  and  acumi- 
nate. Petioles  long,  slender.  Rac.  slender,  3  —  12'  long.  Fls.  small,  2"  diam., 
nearly  white,  about  5  on  each  ped.  Drupe  1'  long,  oval.  Jl.  (Menispermum 
Lyoni  Ph.) 


ORDER  VI.     BERBERIDACELE.     BERBERIDS. 

Herbs  or  shrubs  with  alternate,  usually  exstipulate,  simpfo  or  compound  leaves. 
Flowers  perfect,  hypogynous,  imbricated  in  asstivation.  Gilyx  of  2—6  deciduous 
sepals,  in  1  or  2  rows,  often  with  petaloid  scales  at  base.  Corolla  of  as  many 
or  twice  as  many  petals  as  sepals,  in  oae  to  several  rows.  Stain,  as  many  as  the 
petals  and  opposite  to  them,  rarely  more  numerous.  Antfiers  opening  mostly  by 
recurved  valves  lunged  at  tho  top.  Pistil  one,  style  short  or  none.  Ff.  a  berry  or 
capsule,  seeds  several,  albuminous.  (Figs.  168,  182,  253,  304,  346,  347,  444.) 

An  order  hard  to  define,  including  12  genera  and  100  species,  some  of  them  of  widely  different 
habit  and  very  doubtful  affinities.  They  inhabit  the  temperate  zones.  Some  genera,  as  Podo- 
phyllum  and  Jeffersonia,  possess  catharic  properties.  Others,  as  Bcrberis,  contain  in  their  fruits 
malic  and  oxalic  acids. 

TRIBES   AXD   GEXERA. 

TKIBB  BERBEPvIDIwE— Shrubs.    Embryo  long  as  albumen.    Anth.  halved BEEBEKIS.      1 

TEIBE  NANDLXE.E.— Herbs.    Embryo  short  or  minute.  (*) 

*  Anthers  opening  by  2  valves  hinged  at  the  top.  (a) 

a  Stamens  6.    Fruit  2  drupe-like,  soon  naked  seeds .' CxrLOPiiYLLUM.  2 

a  Stamens  6.    Fruit  a  2 — 4  seeded  berry DIPIIYLLEIA.         3 

a  Stamens  8.    Fruit  a  capsule  opening  by  a  lid JEFFEKSOXI.Y.       4 

*  Anthers  opening  by  2  slits  lengthwise.    Stain.  6— IS PoDOPiiYLtrM.    5 

1.  BERBERIS,  L.  BERBERRY.  (Xame  from  the  Arabic.)  Calyx 
of  6  obovate,  spreading,  colored  sepals,  with  the  3  outer  ones  smaller ; 
corolla  of  6  suborbicnlar  petals,  with  two  glands  at  the  base  of  each ; 
filaments  6,  flattened ;  anthers  2  separate  lobes  on  opposite  edges  of 
the  connectile  ;  style  0  ;  berry  oblong,  1-celled  ;  seeds  2  or  3. — Fine, 
hardy  shrubs. 

1  B.  vulgaris   L.     Spines  (reduced  Ivs.)  3-forked :  Ivs.  simple,  serratures  termi- 
nated  by  soft  bristles ;  rac.   pendulous,   many-flowered ;  pet.   entire. — A   well- 
known  bushy,  ornamental  shrub,  in  hard  gravelly  soils.    Northern  States.    G 
3 — 8f    high.      Lvs.  l£ — 2'  long,   half  as  wide,  round-obtuse  at  apex,  tapering 


218  ORDER  6.—  BERBERIDACE^E. 

at  baso  into  the  petiole,  and  remarkably  distinguished  by  their  bristly  serratures. 
Fls.  yellow,  a  dozen  or  more  in  each  hanging  cluster.  Sta.  irritable,  springing 
violently  against  the  stigma  when  touched.  Berries  scarlet,  very  acid,  forming 
an  agreeable  jelly  when  boiled  with  sugar.  The  bark  of  the  root  dyes  yellow. 
Jn.  §?  Eur. 

/3  CA.NADENSIS  "Willd.  Rac.  few  (6  —  8)-flowered;  berries  oval  —  Can.  (Pursh)to 
Va.  and  Ga.,  along  the  Alleghanies.  Apparently  a  reduced  form  of  a,  with 
narrower  leaves  and  smaller  flowers  and  clusters.  (B.  Canadensis  Ph.) 

2  B.  Aquifolium  Ph.  DCS.  pinnate,  Ifts.  3  —  6  pairs,  leathery,  with  spinulose 
teeth;  fil.  with  2  slender  teeth.  —  In  woods,  Oregon  (Rev.  G-.  Atkinson),  now  often 
cultivated.  A  firm  bushy  shrub,  3  —  5f  high,  with  shining,  dark  green  leaflets, 
resembling  the  leaves  of  the  holly.  Fls.  yellow,  in  short,  upright  clusters,  opening 
early,  f  (Mahonia  Nutt.) 


2.  CAULOPHfLLUM,  MX.  COHOSH.  (Gr.  ttavMx;,  stem; 
leaf;  the  stern  appearing  as  the  stalk  of  the  compound  leaf.)  Calyx 
of  6  green  sepals  3-bracted  at  base  ;  corolla  of  6  short,  gland-like 
thickened  petals,  .  opposite  the  sepals  ;  stamens  6  ;  ovary  2-ovulcd, 
becoming  a  thin  pericarp,  which  soon  breaks  away  after  flowering,  and 
the  2  round  drupe-like  seeds  ripen  naked.  —  "U  Glabrous  and  glaucous, 
arising  from  a  knotted  rhizome.  Lvs.  compound. 

C.  thalictroides  MX.  POPPOOSE  ROOT.  A  curious  plant  in  woods,  Can.  to  Car. 
and  Ky.  Plant  glaucous,  purple  when  young.  St.  1  —  2Jf  high,  round,  dividing 
above  into  2  parts,  one  of  which  is  a  short  common  petiole  of  a  triternate  leaf,  the 
other  bears  a  2-ternate  leaf  and  a  racemous  panicle  of  greenish  flowers.  Lfts. 
paler  beneath,  2  —  3'  long,  lobed  like  those  of  the  Thalictrum  or  Aquilegia.  Seeds 
2  (mostly  1  by  abortion),  naked  after  having  burst  the  caducous,  thin,  pericarp, 
deep  blue,  resembling  berries  on  thick  stipes.  May.  (Leontice,  L.) 


3.  DIPHYLLEIA,  MX.     UMBRELLA-LEAF.     (Gr.  dig,  twice  ; 

eaf.)     Calyx  of  5  sepals,  caducous  ;  cor.  of  6  oval  petals  larger  than 
the  sepals  ;  stamens  G  ;  ovary  eccentric  ;  stigma  subsessile  ;  berry  few- 
reeded,  seeds  attached  laterally  below  the  middle.  —  14  Glabrous,  arising 
from  a  thick,  horizontal  root-stock.     Lvs.  simple,  peltate. 
D.  cymosa  MX.     Along  streams  or  Mts.,  Ya.  to  Ga.,  and  Tenn.     Stems  1  —  2f 
high,  stout,  some  of  them  bearing  a  single  large  (1  —  2f  broad)  orbicular,  cut- 
lobed,  centrally  peltate  leaf;  others  with  two  alternate,  smaller,  roundish  reni- 
form  leaves,  which  are  peltate  near  the  base,  deeply  2-lobed,  the  lobes  cleft,  and 
a  terminal  cyme  of  white  flowers  in  June.  r 

4.  JEFFERSdNIA,  Bart.    TWIN-LEAF.    (In  honor  of  President  Jeffer- 
son, a  patron  of  science.)     Sepals   4,  colored,  deciduous  ;   petals  8, 
spreading,  incurved  ;  stamens  8,  with  linear  anthers  ;  stigma  peltate  ; 
capsule   obovate,    stipitate,   opening    by   a   circumscissile   dehiscence. 
Rhizome  thick,  blackish,  with  a  mass  of  matted  fibers.     Scape  simple, 
1  -flowered.     Lvs.  2-parted  or  binate.     (Figs.  168,  253,  304,  444.) 

J.  diph^lla  Barton.     A  singular  plant  8  —  14'  high,  Middle  and  Western  States, 

5.  to  Ga.     Rhizome  horizontal.     Each  petiole  bears  at  the  top  a  pair  of  binate, 
obliquely  ovate  leaflets,  which  are  placed  base  to  base,  and  broader  than  long, 
ending  in  an  obtuse  point,  glaucous  beneath.    Scape  as  long  as  the  petioles.    Fls. 
large,  regular,  white.     The  capsule  opens  only  half  round,  and  has,  therefore,  a 
persistent  lid.     Apr.     This  plant  has,  in  Ohio,  the  reputation  of  a  stimulant,  and 
anti-spasmodic,  and  is  there  significantly  termed  rheumatism  root. 

5.   PODOPHYLLUM,  L.     MAY  APPLE.  '  (Gr.   ~ovg,  7ro(56c,   a  foot, 
,  a  leaf  ;  alluding  to  the  long,  firnj  petioles.)     Sepals  3,  oval, 


ORDER  8.— NELUMBIACE^E.  219 

obtuse,  concave,  caducous;  petals  6 — 9,  obovate,  concave;  stamens 
9 — 18,  with  linear  anthers;  berry  large,  ovoid,  1-celled,  crowned  with 
the  solitary  stigma. —  14  Low,  rather  poisonous  herbs.  Flowering  stems, 
2 -leaved.  Fl.  solitary. 

P.  peltattun  L.  "WILD  MANDRAKE.  In  woods  and  fields,  common  in  the  Mid.  and 
Western  States,  rare  in  N.  Eng.  S.  to  La.  Height  about  1£  It  is  among  our 
more  curious  and  interesting  plants.  St.  round,  sheathed  at  base,  dividing  into 
2  round  petioles,  between  which  is  the  flower.-  Lvs.  broadly  cordate,  hi  5 — 7 
lobes,  each  lobe  6'  long  from  the  insertion  of  the  petiole,  2-lobed  and  dentate  at 
apex.  Barren  stems  with  one  centrally  peltate  leaf.  FL  pedunculate,  drooping, 
white,  about  2'  diam.  Fr.  ovoid  oblong,  large,  yellowish ;  with  the  flavor  of  the 
strawberry.  The  root  is  cathartic.  May. 

ORDER  VII.     CABOMBACEJS.     WATER  SHIELDS. 

Herbs  aquatic,  with  the  floating  ivs.  entire,  centrally  peltate,  the  submersed  ones 
dissected.  Fls.  small,  erect,  one  on  each  peduncle,  hypogynous".  Petals  3 — 4, 
alternate  with  the  3  or  4  sepals  which  are  colored  inside,  all  persistent.  Sta.  twice, 
or  4  or  6  times  as  many  as  the  petals.  Antliers  adnate.  Ova.  2  or  more,  distinct. 
SHy.  simple.  Fr.  indehiscent,  tipped  with  the  hardened  style.  Sds.  globular, 
pendulous.  Embryo,  minute,  2-lobed,  external  to  an  abundant,  fleshy  albumen. 

Genera  2,  species  3.  American  water  plants,  extending  from  Cayenne,  S  America,  N.  to 
N.  Eng.  Properties,  slightly  astringent. 

1.  BRASENIA,  Sclireb.     WATER  TARGET.     Calyx  of  3—4    sepals, 
colored  within,  persistent;  corolla  of  3 — 4  petals;  stamens  12 — 24; 
ovaries  6 — 18 ;  carpels  oblong,  2  (or  by  abortion  l)-seeded. —  If  Aquatic. 
The  stems  and  under  surface  of  the  leaves  are  covered  with  a  viscid 
jelly.     Lvs.  all  floating,  entire. 

B.  peltata  Ph.     It  inhabits  muddy  shores  and  pools,  often  in  company  with  the 
water  lily,  Can.  to  Ga.  and  Ark.     Lvs.  peltate,  elliptical,  entire,  2 — 3'  by  1 — !£', 
with  the  long,  flexible  petioles  inserted  exactly  ha  the  center,  floating  on  the 
surface  of  the  water,  smooth  and  shining  above.     Fls.  arising  to  the  surface,  on 
long,  slender,  axillary  peduncles.     Petals  purple,  about  3''  long.     Jl.     (Hydro- 
peltis  purpurea  MX.) 

2.  CABOMBA,  Aublet.     Sepals  3,  petaloid ;   petals  3  ;   stamens  6  ; 
pistils  3  (rarely  2  or  4),  nearly  the  length  of  stamens,  and  half  as  long 
as  the  petals  and  sepals ;   carpels  few-seeded. — Lvs.  opposite,  mostly 
submersed  and  filiformly  dissected. 

C.  Caroliniana   Gray.     In  stagnant  waters,  K  Car.  to   Ga   and  La.     Stems 
branched.     Floating  Ivs.  small  (6''  long,  1"  wide)  and  few,  oblong-linear,  cen- 
trally peltate ;  submersed  Ivs.  many,  reniform  in  outline,  1 — 2'  broad,  repeatedly 
di  and  tri-chotomous  into  threadlike  segments.     Ped.  2'  long,  1-flowered.     Fls. 
white,  5 — 6"  broad,  strictly  \/,  (sometimes  -J),  with-  oval,  obtuse  petals  yellow  at 
base.    May. 

ORDER  VIII.     NELUMBIACE^E.     WATER  BEANS. 

Herbs  aquatic,  large,  with  prostrate  rootstock  and  radical,  peltate  leaves,  with 
flowers  large,  solitary,  on  long,  upright  scapes,  4 — 5-sepaled;  petals  numerous, 
arranged  in  many  rows,  as  are  also  the  stamens,  ovaries  separate,  each  with  a  simple 
style  and  stigma,  becoming  in  fruit  1-seeded  nuts  half  sunk  in  the  hollows  of  the 
very  large  torus,  the  seeds  with  largely  developed  embryo,  and  no  albumen. 


220  ORDER  9.— NYMPH  AEACE^E. 

This  order  comprises  but  a  single  genus  with  2  species,  viz.,  N.  speciosum,  supposed  to  be 
the  sacred  Egyptian  bean  of  the  E.  Indies ;  the  other,  as  follows.  Tho  nuts  are  nutritive,  and 
also  at  certain  seasons,  the  farinaceous  rhizomes. 

NELUMBIUM,  Juss.     NELUMBO.     Characters  of  the  genus  the  same 
as  those  of  the  order. 

N.  luteum  L.  A  magnificent  flowering  plant,  frequent  in  the  stagnant  waters  of 
the  South  and  West ;  in  Sodus  Bay,  N.  Y.  (Williams) ;  Lyme,  Ct. ;  near  Philadel- 
phia, etc.'  Rhizome  creeping  in  mud  in  depths  of  water  from  2  or  3  to  6f.  From 
this  arise  the  simple  scapes  and  petioles  to  the  surface.  Lvs.  10 — 18'  diam., 
orbicular,  entire,  concave,  the  petioles  inserted  at  the  center.  Fls.  several  times 
larger  than  those  of  Nymphaea  odorata,  fragrant.  Petals  concave,  obtuse,  light- 
yellow,  3—4'  in  Idngth.  The  nuts  imbedded  in  the  torus  are  about  the  size  of 
acorns,  and  remarkable  for  the  large,  leafy  embryo.  June  (S.) — Aug. 


ORDER  IX.     NYMPHAEACE^E.      WATER  LILIES. 

Herbs  aquatic,  with  peltate  or  cordate  leaves  from  a  prostrate  rhizome.  Fls.  large, 
showy,  often  sweet-scented.  Sepals  and  petals  numerous,  imbricated,  gradually 
passing  into  each  other.  Sep.  persistent.  Petals  inserted  upon  the  disk  which  sur- 
rounds the  pistil.  Sta.  numerous,  in  several  rows  upon  the  disk,  often  passing  into 
petals.  Anthers  adnate,  introrse.  Pistils  many,  united  into  a  many-celled,  many- 
seeded,  compound  ovary  with  a  radiate  stigma.  Sds.  embryo  inclosed  in  a  sack  at 
the  end  of  a  copious  albumen  next  the  hilum.  (Figs.  453,  232 — 240.) 

Genera  5,  species  50,  inhabiting  tho  northern  hemisphere,  Victoria  in  equatorial  America. 
Their  general  aspect  is  that  of  an  endogen,  but  they  have  2  foliaceous  cotyledons.  The  stems 
of  nympbsea  contain  a  powerful  astringent  principle,  which  is-rernoved  by  repeated  washing  in 
water,  after  which  they  arc  tasteless,  and  may  be  used  for  food. 

1.  NYMPHJEA,  L.     WATER  LILY.     (The  Greek  nymph,  or  Naiad,  of 
the  waters.)    Sepals  4  or  5  ;  petals  oo,  inserted  on  the  torus  at  its  base ; 
stamens  gradually  transformed  into  petals :    stigma  surrounded  with 
rays  ;  pericarp  many-celled,  many-seeded. — 14  Aquatic. 

N.  odordta  L.  One  of  the  loveliest  of  flowers,  possessing  beauty,  delicacy,  and 
fragrance  in  the  highest  degree.  Ponds  and  sluggish  streams,  N.  Am.  E.  of  R. 
Mts.  Rhizome  thick,  in  mud  where  the  water  is  of  3 — 8  or  lOf  in  depth,  send- 
ing up  leaves  and  flowers  to  tho  surface.  Lvs.  5 — 6'  diam.,  dark  shining  green 
above,  orbicular,  entire-edged,  cleft  at  tho  base  quite  to  the  insertion  of  the  long 
petiole.  Sep.  colored  within.  Pet.  lanceolate,  1^ — 2'  long,  of  the  most  delicate 
texture,  white,  tinged  with  purple.  Fil.  yellow,  dilated  gradually  from  the  inner 
to  the  outer  series  so  as  to  pass  insensibly  into  petals.  (§  378).  Jl. 
/?  ROSEA  Ph.  Petals  rose-colored.  Mass. 

2.  NflPHAR,  Smith.     POND   LILY.     (Neufar  is  the  Arabic  name.) 
Sepals  5  or  6,  oblong,  concave,  colored  within ;  corolla  of  numerous 
small  petals  furrowed  externally,  and  inserted  with  the  numerous,  trun- 
cated, linear  stamens   on  the  torus ;  stigma  discoid,  with  prominent 
rays ;  pericarp  many-celled,  many-seeded. — H  Aquatic.     Lvs.  oval  or 
oblong,  sagittate-cordate. 

1  N.  advena  Ait.  YELLOW  POXD  LILY.  Lvs.  floating  or  erect,  with  rounded, 
diverging  lobes  at  base,  petioles  half-round;  sep.  6;  petals  OO;  stig.  12 — 15-rayed, 
margin  slightly  repand. — Very  common  in  sluggish  streams  and  muddy  lakes, 
Can.  to  Ga.,  "W".  to  Oregpn.  A  well-looking  and  very  curious  plant,  but  from 
its  filthy  habits  it  has  been  called,  with  justice,  the  frog  lily.  The  rhizome  is 
large,  creeping  extensively.  Lvs.  large,  dark  green,  shining  above,  and  when 
floating,  pale  and  slimy  beneath.  Petioles  half  round.  Fls.  rather  large  and 


ORDER  10.— SARRACENIACE^l.  221 

globular  in  form,  erect,  on  a  thick,  rigid  stalk.  Three  outer  sepals  yellow 
inside,  and  the  three  inner  entirely  yellow,  as  well  as  the  petals  and^stamens. 
Jn.  Jl.  (Xymphasa  MX.) 

2  N.  Kalmiana  Ait.     Floating  Ivs.  with  base  lobes  approximate,  submersed  Ivs. 
membranous,  reniform-cordate,  the  lobes  divaricate,  margin  waved,  apex  retuse ; 
sep.  5  ;  stig.  8 — 12-rayed,  crenate. — A  smaller  species,   with  small  yellow  fls., 
growing  in  similar  situations  with  the  last,  Northern  States.     Dr.  Bobbins,  from 
whose  MSS.  the  above  is  quoted,  thinks  it  wholly  distinct  from  N.  lutea,  (Smith) 
or  any  other  species.     Petiole  slender,  subterete.     Upper  Ivs.  2 — 3'  long  1^ 
wide ;  lower  Ivs.  3—4'  diam.     Jl.     (Nuphar  lutea  /3  Kalmiana  Torr  &  Gr.) 

3  IT.  sagittaefolia  Ph.     Lvs.  elongated,  sagittate-cordate,  obtuse ;  sep.  6  ;  pet.  0  ; 
anth.  subsessile. — In  slow  waters,  .  N.  Car.  to  Ga.  (Savannah).     Rhizome  erect. 
Lvs.  large,  10  to  15'  long.     Fls.  as  large  as  in  Xo.  2.     Outer  sep.  green;  inner, 
yellow  and  petal  oid. 

VICTORIA  regia  is  also  a  member  of  this  Order, — a  gigantic  Water  Lily, 
native  of  the  rivers  of  Brazil  and  Guiana,  and  successfully  cultivated  here.  Its 
earliest  leaves  are  linear,  then  hastate,  next  sagittate  ;  its  late  ones  become  ovate 
with  a  deep  slit  at  base.  Thence  they  gradually  become  circular  and  centrally 
peltate,  exhibiting  by  a  distinct  line  the  union  of  the  base  lobes.  When  full  grown 
they  are  4 — 6f  diam.  (or  8 — 12f  in  their  native  rivers),  with  upturned  edges  and 
prominent  veins  beneath.  The  expanded  flowers  with  numerous  petals  and  sepals 
are  If  ia  diameter. 


ORDER  X.     SARRACENIACEJE.     WATER  PITCHER. 

Herbs  aquatic,  in  bogs,  with  fibrous  roots,  perennial,  and  with  the  leaves  all  radi- 
cal, urn-shaped,  or  trumpet-shaped,  and  large  flowers  on  scapes.  Floral  envelops 
4 — 10,  imbricated,  the  outer  greenish,  sepaloid.  Stamens  OO,  hypogynous.  Carpels 
united  into  a  several-celled  capsule.  (Figs.  174,  175,  176.) 

A  curious  order,  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  leaves  which  are  of  that  class  called  aseidia  (§803). 
It  embraces  at  present  3  genera  and  6  or  8  species  ;  the  Heliainphora  of  Guiana,  the  Darlingtonia 
of  California  and 

SARRACENIA,  Tourn.  PITCHER  PLANT.  (Named  in  honor  of  Dr. 
Sarrazen  of  Quebec.)  Calyx  of  5  colored  sepals,  with  3  small  bracts  at 
base,  persistent ;  corolla  of  5,  incurved,  deciduous  petals ;  stigmas  5, 
united  into  a  large,  peltate,  persistent  membrane  covering  the  ovary 
and  stamens ;  capsule  5-celled ;  seeds  very  numerous,  albuminous. — 
Lvs.  holding  water,  with  a  wing  on  the  front  side  and  a  hood  (lamina) 
at  top.  Scapes  1 -flowered,  fl.  large,  nodding. 

Lamina  inflected  over  the  throat  of  the  tube Xos.  1,  2. 

Lamina  erect  or  nearly  so,  throat  open.* 

*  Leaves  ventricous,  never  spotted  with  whito No.  3. 

*  Leaves  trumpet-shaped,  very  tall,  often  mottled  and  spotted  above Xo.  4. 

1  S.  psiticina  MX.    Lvs.  short,  reclined,  with  a  broad  semi-ovate  wing :  fls.  deep 
purple. — Bogs,  Ga.,  Fla.  to  La.      Lvs.  3'  to  5'  long  when  the  plant  is  in  flower, 
6 — 10'  when  hi  fruit,  slightly  mottled  with  white  on  the  back.      The  tube  is 
small  and  nearly  closed .  by  the  hooded  lamina,  which  gives  to  the  whole  leaf 
the  semblance  of  a  parrot,  whence  the  -specific  name.      Scape   If  high.     Fl. 
rather  smaller  than  that  of  S.  purpurea.     March. 

2  S.  variolaris  MX.     Lvs.  elongated,    nearly   erect,  mottled  with  white  on  the 
back,   the  wing  lance-linear;    fa.  yellow. — Bogs   in  pine  barrens,  S.  Car.,   Ga. 
(Feay  and  Pond)  and  Fla.     Lvs.  12'  to  18'  high,  remarkable  for  their  white  dia- 
phanous spots  near  the  top.     Tube  somewhat  ventricous  above,  nearly  enclosed 
by  the  strongly  inflexed  hood  ;  wing  G"  to  12''  wide.      Scapes  shorter  than  Ivs. 
Fls.  about  the  size  of  the  last.     Mar.,  Apr. 


222  ORDER  12.— PAPAYERACE^E. 

3  S.  purpftrea  L.    SIDE-SADDLE  FLOWER.     Lvs.  short,  decumbent,  inflated  most 
near  the  middle ;  lamina  broad  cordate. — Bogs  throughout  Can.  and  U.  S.     This 
species  is  the  most  common,  and  on  it  the  genus  was  founded.     Lvs.  6 — 9'  long, 
rosulate,  evergreen,  composed  of  a  hollow,  pitcher-form  petiole,  swelling  in  the 
middle,  with  a  wing-like  appendage  extending  the   whole  length  inside,  from 
i — i'  wide,  and  extended  on  the  outside  of  the  mouth  into  a  lamina,  covered 
above  with  reversed  hairs.      Their  capacity  when  of  ordinary  size  is  about  a 
wine   glass,   and  generally,    like  the   other   species,  they    contain  water  with 
drowned  insects.     Scape  14 — 20'  high,  terete,  smooth,  supporting  a  single,  large, 
purple,  nodding  flower,  almost  as  curious  in  structure  as  the  leaves.     Jn. 

(3.  HETEROPHYLLA  Torr.  Scape  rather  shorter;  sep.  yellowish  green;  pet. 
yellow. — Northampton,  Mass.  (R.  M.  "Wright).  Lvs.  scarcely  different.  (S. 
heterophylla  Eaton.) 

4  S.  Gronvoii.    TRUMPET-LEAF.    Lvs.  tall,  straight,  erect,  tube  gradually  enlarged 
to  the  open  throat,  wing  narrowly  linear,  lamina  sub-erect,  roundish,  mucronate,  con- 
tracted at  base. — Tho  largest  species  of  the  genus,  in  swampy  pine  woods,  Va.  to 
Fla.  and  La.      Lvs.  often  3f  in  hight,  and  the  scapes  even  taller ;  the  lamina  as 
broad  as  the  open   throat    (2 — 3').      Fls.  very  large    (when   extended  4 — 5' 
diam.)  and  of  exactly  the  same  structure  in  all  the  varieties. 

a.  FLAVA.  Fls.  yellow ;  foliage  yellowish  green,  with  or  without  purplish  veins 
(S.  flava  L.  S.  Catesbsei  Ell.). 

6.  ALATA.  Fls.  yellow?  large;  Ivs.  1 — 2f  high,  with  tho  tube  somewhat 
ventricous  above,  throat  contracted,  wing  conspicuous  (£'  broad).  La. 
(Hale). — A  remarkable  variety. 

y.  RUBRA.  Fls.  reddish  purple,  smaller  than  S.  purpurea.  Lvs.  1 — 2f  high, 
with  purple  veins  (S.  rubra  Walt.). 

d.  DRUMMONDII.  Fls.  purple,  very  large;  Ivs.  very  tall  (20—30'),  remark- 
ably mottled  above  with  purple  veins  and  white,  diaphanous  interstices.  (S. 
Drummondii  Groom)  Fla.  (Chapman.) 


ORDER  XII.     PAP  AVERAGES.     POPPY-WORTS. 

Herbs  with  alternate,  exstipulate  leaves,  and  generally  a  milky  or  colored  juice. 
Fls.  solitary,  on  long  peduncles,  never  blue,  hypogynous,  regular,  ^/  or  y.  Sep. 
2,  rarely  3,  caducous,  and  petals  4,  rarely  6,  all  imbricated.  Sta.  indefinite,  but 
some  multiple  of  4.  Anthers  2-celled,  innate.  Ova.  compound.  Sty.  short  or  0. 
Stig.  2,  or  if  more,"  stellate  upon  the  flat  apex  of  ovary.  Fr.  either  pod-shaped, 
with  2  parietal  placentas,  or  capsular,  with  several.  Sds.  CO,  minute.  Embryo 
minute,  at  the  base  of  oily  albumen.  (Figs.  229 — 231,  276.) 

An  order  consisting  of  15  genera  and  130  species,  more  than  two-thirds  of  which  are  natives 
of  Europe.  The  order  is  characterised  by  active  narcotic  properties,  principally  resident  in  tin- 
turbid  juice.  Opium  is  the  dried  milky  juice  of  Papaver  somniferutn.  The  seeds  are  com- 
monly rich  in  fixed  oil.  Several  of  the  species  arc  highly  ornamental  in  cultivation. 

T  Plants  with  a  red  juice.    Petals  8,  plain  in  tho  bud SANGUINAIUA.        1 

1  Plants  with  a  yellow  juice.     Petals  crumpled  in  the  bud.  (*) 

*  Stigmas  and  placenta;  3,  4,  or  6.    Capsule  ovoid,  (b) 

*  Stigmas  and  placenta?  2  only.     Capsule  long,  pod-shaped,  (a) 

a  Pod  1-celled,  smooth.    Lvs.  pinnate CiiELiDoxirii.  -2 

a  Pod  2-celled,  rough.    Lvs.  palmate GLAUCIUM. 

b  Style  distinct,  but  short MECOXOPSIS,  5 

b  Style  none,  stigma  sessile ARGEMOSE. 

1  Plants  with  a  white  juice.     Petals  4,  crumpled  in  bud PAPAVEH.  6 

4  Plants  with  a  watery  juice.    Calyx  a  mitre,  falling  off  whole ESCHSCUOLTZIA.  7 

1.  SANGUINARIA,  L.  BLOOD-ROOT.  (Latin  sanguis,  blood  ;  all  its 
parts  abound  in  a  red  juice.)  Sepals  2,  caducous  ;  petals  8 — 12,  in  2 
or  3  rows,  the  outer  longer.  Stamens  about  24  ;  stigma  sessile,  1 
or  2-lobed  ;  capsule  silique-form,  oblong,  1-celled,  2-valved,  acute  at  each 


ORDER  11.—  PAPAVERACE.E.  223 

end,  many-seeded.  —  U  A  low,  acaulescent  plant,  with  a  white  flower, 
and  a  glaucous,  palmate-veined  leaf. 

S.  Canad£nsis  L.  An  interesting  flower,  in  woods,  Can.  and  U.  S.,  appearing 
in  early  spring.  Rhizome  fleshy,  tuberous,  and  when  broken  or  bruised  exudes 
an  orange-red  fluid,  as  also  does  every  other  part  of  the  plant.  From  each  bud 
of  the  root-stalk  there  springs  a  single  large,  glaucous  leaf,  and  a  scape  about  6' 
high,  with  a  single  flower.  "Whole  plant  glabrous.  Leaf  kidney-shaped,  with 
roundish  lobes  separated  by  rounded  sinuses.  Fl.  of  a  quadrangular  outline, 
white,  scentless,  and  of  short  duration.  The  juice  is  emetic  and  purgative. 
Apr.,  May.  (Fig.  557.) 

(3.  Leaf  not  lobed,  margin  undulate.     Bainbridge,  Ga. 


2.  CHELIDdNIUM,  L.     CELANDINE.     (Gr.  ^eAMwv,  the  swallow; 
being  supposed  to  flower  with  the  arrival  of  that  bird,  and  to  perish 
with   its  departure.)     Sepals  2,  suborbieular  ;    petals  4,  suborbicular, 
contracted  at  base  ;  stamens  24  —  32,  shorter  than  the  petals  ;  stigma  1, 
small,   sessile,  bifid  ;    capsule   silique-form,  linear,   2-valved,   1-celled  ; 
seeds  crested.  —  U  Fragile,  pale  green,  with  saffron  yellow  juice. 

C.  ma  jus  L.  Lvs.  pinnate;  Ifts.  lobed,  segments  rounded;  fls.  in  umbels.  —  By 
roadsides,  fences,  etc.,  arising  1  —  2f  high.  Lvs.  smooth,  glaucous,  spreading, 
consisting  of  2—4  pairs  of  leaflets  with  an  odd  one.  Lfts.  1^  —  2^'  long,  §  as 
broad,  irregularly  dentate  and  lobed,  the  partial  stalks  winged  at  base.  Umbels 
thin,  axillary,  pedunculate.  Petals  elliptical,  entire,  yellow,  and  very  fugacious, 
like  every  other  part  of  the  flower.  The  abundant  bright  yellow  juice  is  used  to 
cure  itch  and  destroy  warts.  May  —  Oct.  §  Eur. 

3.  GLAlfCIUM,  Tourn.    HORN  POPPY.    (Gr.  yhavubv,  glaucous,  the 
hue  of  the  foliage.)      Sepals   2  ;    petals  4  ;    stamens  co  ;  style  none, 
stigma  2-lobed;  ped.  2-celled,  linear,  very  long,  rough.  —  <T)  or  ©  sea- 
green  herbs,  with  clasping  Ivs.,  yellow  juice,  and  solitary,  yellow  fls. 

G.  luteum  Scop.  Sparingly  naturalized  near  the  coast,  from  the  Potomac  south- 
ward. About  2f  high,  covered  with  a  glaucous  bloom.  St.  glabrous.  Lvs. 
repandly  5  —  7  -lobed,  clasping  so  as  to  appear  perfoliate.  Fls,  2'  broad,  of  short 
duration,  but  many  in  succession,  succeeded  by  a  horn-shaped  fruit,  which  is 
rough  with  tubercles,  and  6  —  9'  in  length.  Jn.  —  Aug.  § 

4.  ARGEMONE,  L.     PRICKLY  POPPY.     (Gr.  opye/^a,  a  disease  of  the 
eye,  which  this  plant  was  supposed  to  cure.)     Sepals  2  or  3,  roundish, 
acuminate,  caducous  ;  petals  4  or  6,  roundish,  larger  than  the  sepals  ; 
stamens  oo,  stigma  sessile,  capitate,  4  or  6-raved  ;  capsule  ovoid,  prickly, 
opening  at  the  top   by  valves.  —  (T)  Herbs  with  yellow  juice,  spinous- 
pinnatifid  Ivs.,  and  showy  fls. 

A.  Mexicana  L.  Cal.  prickly  ;  caps,  prickly,  6-valved.  —  A  weed-like  plant,  native 
at  the  South  and"  West,  §  at  the  North.  St.  2  —  3f  high,  branching1,  armed  with 
prickly  spines.  Lvs.  5  —  7'  or  8'  long,  sessile,  spinous  on  the  margin  and  veins 
beneath.  Fls.  axillary  and  terminal,  on  short  peduncles,  2  —  3'  diarn.,  yellow. 
The  juice  becomes  in  air  a  tine  gamboge-yellow,  and  is  esteemed  for  jaundice, 
cutaneous  eruptions,  sore  eyes,  fluxes,  etc.  July.  —  Varieties  occur  with  ochrc- 
leucous  fls.  and  with  large  white  fis.  (N.  Car.  Curtis.) 

5.  MECONOPSIS,  Vignier.    YELLOW  POPPY.     (Gr.  (IIJKW,  a  poppy; 
resemblance.)     Sepals  2,  hirsute  ;  petals  4  ;  stamens  GO  ;  style  con- 

spicuous; stigmas  4  —  6,  radiating,  convex,  free  ;  capsule  ovoid,  1-celled, 
opening  by  four  valves.  —  "4  Herbs  with  a  yellovr  juice,  pinnately  divided 
Ivs.,  and  yellow  fls. 


224  ORDER  12.— FUMARIACE^E. 

M.  diphylla  DC.  Lvs.  glaucous  beneath,  segments  5 — 7,  ovate-oblong,  sinuate, 
cauline  2,  opposite,  petiolate ;  ped.  aggregated,  terminal ;  caps.  4-valved,  echi- 
nate-setous. — Woods,  AVesteru  States.  Plant  12 — 18'  high.  Lvs.  large,  8'  by  6', 
on  petioles  about  the  same  length,  terminal  segment  somewhat  confluent.  Ped. 
about  3'  long.  Petals  deep  yellow,  orbicular,  1'  diam.  Sty.  surpassing  the  stain. 
May.  (Stylophorum  Nutt.) 

6.  PAPAVER,  L.     POPPY.     Fig.  229,  230,  231.     (Celtic,  papa,  pap ; 
a  soporific  food  for  children,  composed  of  poppy  seeds,  etc.)     Sepals  2, 
caducous ;  petals  4  ;  stamens  oo  ;  capsule  1-celled,  opening  by  pores 
under  the  broad,  persistent  stigma. — Exotic  herbs,  with  white  juice, 
abounding  in  opium.     Fl.  buds  nodding,  erect  in  flower  and  fruit. 

1  P.  somnifemm  L.    OPIUM  POPPY.     Glabrous  and  glaucous ;  Ivs.  clasping, 
cut-dentate ;  caps,  globous. — CD  with  large,  brilliantly  white  flowers,  double  in  culti- 
vation.     St.  1£ — 3f  high.     Lvs.  4 — 8-'  by  2 — 3',  with  rather  obtuse  dentures. 
Extensively  cultivated  in  Europe  and  southern  Asia  for  opium,   a  drug  more 
generally  applicable  and  more  frequently  prescribed  than  any  other  article  of  the 
materia  medica.     Ju.  Jl.  f  § 

2  P.  ddbium  L.     St.  hispid  wiili  spreading  hairs ;  Ivs.  pinnatety  parted,  segm. 
incised',    sop.  hairy;    caps,  club-shaped. — CO  Sparingly  naturalized   in  cultivated 
grounds,  Pcnn.  and  southward.      St.  about  2f  high,  very  slender.      Pis.  light 
red  or  scarlet,  much  smaller  thau  in  No.  1,  on  very  long  hairy  pedicels.     Jn.  Jl.§ 

3  P.  Rbaeas   L.      St.  many-flowered,  hairy;    Ivs.   incisely  pinnatifiel:  caps, 
globou-s. — CD  Distinguished  from  the  last  species  chiefly  by  its  more  finely  divided 
leaves  and  its  globular  capsule.    About  2f  high.    Fls.  very  large  and  showy,  of  a 
deep  scarlet.    Varieties  are  produced  with  various  shades  of  red  and  parti-colored 
flowers,  more  or  less  double.    Jn.  J1.-J- 

4  P.  orientale  L.     Si.  \-floiuered,  rough ;  Ivs.  scabrous,  pinnate,  serrate ;  caps, 
smooth. — 14  Native  of  Levant.      St.  3f  high.      Fls.  very  large,  and  of  a  rich 
scarlet  color,  too  brilliant  to  ba  looked  upon  in  the  sun.     Jn.f 

7.  ESCHSCHOLTZIA,  Cham.      (Named  for  Eschscholtz,  a  German 
botanist  well  known  for  his  researches  in  California.)      Sepals  2,  co- 
hering by  their  edge,  caducous ;  petals  4  ;  stamens  oo,  adhering  to  the 
claws  of  the  petals;  stigmas  4 — 7,  sessile,  2 — 3  of  them  abortive;  cap- 
sule pod-shaped,  cylindric,  10-striate,  many-seeded. — CD  Lvs.  pinnatifid, 
glaucous.    The  juice,  which  is  colorless,  exhales  the  odor  of  hydroch- 
loric acid. 

1  E.  Douglasii  Hook.     St.  branching,  leafy;  toiiis  obconic;  cal.  ovoid,  with 
a  very  short,  abrupt  acumination;  pet.  bright-yellow,  with  an  orange  spot  at 
base. — A  very  showy  annual,  common  in  our  gardens,  native  of  California,  Ore- 
gon, etc.     The  foliage  is  smooth,  abundant  and  rich,  dividing  in  a  twice  or  thrice 
pinnatifld  manner  into  linear  segments.     Fls.  2'  broad,  f     (Chryseis  Californica  of 
Lindl.  and  1st  edition.) 

2  E.  Californica  Hook.      St.  branching,  leafy ;  torus  funnel  form,  with  a 
much  dilated  limb;  cal.  obconic;  with  a  long  acumination;  fls.  orange-yellow. — 
From  California.    Lvs.  and  color  of  flowers  as  in  the  preceding,  except  the  latter 
are  more  of  a  reddish,  orange  hue.f     (Chryseis  crocea  Lindl.  and  of  1st  edition.) 

ORDER   XII.     FUMARIACEJE.     FUMEWOUTS. 

Herbs  smooth  and  delicate,  with  brittle  stems,  and  a  watery  juice.  Leaves  usually 
alternate,  multifid,  often  furnished  with  tendrils.  Fls.  irregular,  purple,  white  or 
yellow.  Sepals  2,  very  small.  Petals  4,  hypogynous,  parallel,  one  or  both  of  the 
outer  saccate ;  2  inner  cohering  at  apex.  Sfa.  6,  diadelphou's ;  JU.  dilated ;  anth. 
adnate,  extrorse,  2  outer  1-celled,  middle  2-celled.  Ova.  superior,  1-celled;  sty. 


ORDER  12.— FTJMARIACE^E.  225 

fiiiform;  stig.  with  one  or  more  points.     Fr.  either  an  indehiscent  nut  1 — 2 -seeded, 
or  a  pod-shaped  capsule  many-seeded     Sds.  shining,  ariled.     Albumen  fleshy. 

Illustrations,  42,  43,  44,  318. 

Genera  15,  species  110, — some  of  them  beautiful  and  delicate,  inhabiting  thickets  In  the  tern- 
pern  to  regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  They  possess  no  remarkable  action  upon  the  animal 
economy. 

Corolla  equally  2-spurred  or  2-gibbous  at  base,  (a) 
Corolla  unequal,  only  one  of  the  petals  sparred,  (b) 

a  Petals  not  united,  deciduous.    Not  climbing DICENTBA.    1 

a  Petals  united,  persistent.    Plants  climbing ADLUMIA.     2 

b  Fruit  pod-shaped,  many-seeded CORYDALIB.  8 

b  Fruit  a  globular,  1-seeded  nut : FUMAEIA.     4 

1.  DICENTRA,  Borkh.  EAR-DROP.  (Gr.  dig,  double;  Kevrpov,  a 
spur ;  from  the  character.)  Sepals  2,  small ;  petals,  4,  the  2  outer 
equally  spurred  or  gibbous  at  base,  and  distinct ;  stamens  united  in  2 
sets  of  three  each ;  pod  2-valved,  many-seeded. —  ~4  Fls.  in  racemes  on 
scapes. 

Low  herbs  (60,  with  white  flowers,  in  simple  racemes Nos.  1,  t 

Taller  (12'),  with  purple  flowers,  in  paniculate  racemes Nos.  3,  4 

1  D.  cucullaria  DC.     Fig.  42,  43,  318.     DUTCHMAN'S  BREECHES.     Root  lutbi- 
ferous;  rac.  4 — 10-flowered,  secund;  spurs  divergent,  elongated,  acute,  straight. — 
"Woods,  Can.  to  Ky.     A  smooth,  handsome  plant.     Rhizome  bearing  triangular, 
small,  pale  red,  scale-like  tubers,  forming  a  loose  bulb  under  ground.   Lvs.  radical, 
multifid,  somewhat  triternate,  smooth,  with  oblong-linear  segments,  the  petioles 
rather  shorter  than  the  scape.     Scape  slender  6 — 10'  high,     Fls.  scentless,  nod- 
ding, whitish,  at  summit  yellow.     Pedicels  short,  axillary  to  a  bract,  and  with  2 
minute  bracteoles  near  the  flower.     Spurs  about  as  long  as  the  corolla.     Apr.. 
May. 

2  D.  Canadensis  DC.    Fig.  44.     SQUIRREL  CORN.    St.  subterranean,  tuberiferous, 
tubers  globous,  raceme  simple,  secund,  4 — 6-flowered ;  spurs  short,  rounded,  ob- 
tuse, slightly  incurved. — A  smooth,  pretty  plant,  common  hi  rocky  woods,  Can. 
to  Ky.     The  rhizome  bears  a  number  of  roundish  tubers  about  the  size  of  peas, 
and  of  a  bright  yellow  color.     Lvs.  radical,  subglaucous,  biternate,  the  Ifts.  deeply 
pinnatifi'l  segments  linear-oblong,  obtuse,  5 — 8"  long.     Scape  6 — -8  high,  bearing 
a  few  odd-looking  flowers.     Cor.  white,  tinged  with  purple,  fragrant,  5"  long. 
Sta.  3  on  each  lip.     May,  Jn. 

3  D.  exirnia  DC.     Rhizome  scaly ;  Ivs.  numerous ;  rac.  compound,  the  branches 
cymous ;  fls.  oblong,  spurs  very  short,  obtuse,  incurved ;  stigma  2-horned  at  apex. 
— A  fine  species  on  rocks,  etc.,  found  by  Dr.  Sartwell  in  Yates  Co.,  N.  Y.,  S.  to 
N.  Car.     Lvs.  radical,  10 — 15'  high,  somewhat  triternate,  with  incisely  pinnati- 
fid,  acute  segments.     Scape  8 — 12'  high,  with  several  (4 — 8)  cymes,  each  with 
6—10  purplish,  nodding  flowers.     Cor.  8 — 10"  long,  J  as  broad  at  base.     Bracts 
purplish,  at  base  of  pedicels.     Jn.,  Sept.f     (Corydalis  formosa  Ph.) 

4  D.  formosa  DC.     Rhizome  many-leaved;  rac.  slightly  compound;  fls.  ovate,  in- 
flated; spurs  short,  rounded,  saccate;  stig.  entire.— Can.  to  Or.     An  elegant  and 
showy  species  in  cultivation,  about  the  size  of  the  last,  with  foliage  less  incised 
and  lobes  rather  obtuse.     Rac.  secund,  the  cymes  2  to  4-flowered.     Fls.  bright 
purple,  about  10"  long,  by  5"  or  6"  wide,  the  stigma  angular,  not  cleft  as  hi  No. 
3.     May,  Jit 

2.  ADLUMIA,  Raf.  MOUNTAIN  FRINGE.  (Named  for  John  Adlum, 
Washington,  B.  C.,  a  cultivator  of  the  vine.)  Sepals  2,  minute ;  petals 
4,  united  into  a  fungous,  monopetalous  corolla,  persistent,  bigibbous  at 
base,  4-lobed  at  apex ;  stamens  united  in  2  equal  sets ;  pod  2-valved, 
many-seeded. — ©  A  delicate,  climbing  vine. 

A.  cinhosa  Raf.  Rocky  hills,  Can.  to  N.  Car.  Stem  striate,  many  feet  in 
length.  Lvs.  decompound,  divided  in  a  pinnate  manner,  ultimate  divisions  3- 
lobed,  smooth,  their  foot-stalks  serving  for  tendrils.  Fls.  very  numerous,  in  axil- 
lary, pendulous,  cymous  clusters,  pale  pink.  CaL  minute.  Cor.  slightly  cordate 

15 


226  ORDER  13.— CRIJCIFER^E. 

at  base,  of  4  petals  united  into  a  spongy  mass,  cylindric,  compressed,  tapering 
upward,  2-lipped.     Fine  for  arbors,  Jn.,  Aug.f 

3!  CORYDALIS,  DC.  (Gr.  name  of  the  Fumitory,  from  which  genus 
this  was  taken.)  Sepals  2,  small ;  petals  4,  one  of  which  is  spurred  at 
the  base  ;  stamens  6,  diadelphous ;  filaments  united  into  two  equal  sets 
by  their  broad  bases,  which  sheath  the  ovary  ;  pod  2-valved,  compress- 
ed, many-seeded. — Lvs.  cauline.  Pedicels  racemons,  bractless. 

1  C.  glauca  Ph.     Sts.  erect;  leaf-lobes  obtuse;   brac.ts  minute,  pods  erect. — ©  A 
smooth,  delicate  plant,  in  mountainous  woods,  Can.  to  N.  Car.,  covered  with  a 
glaucous  bloom.     Hoot  fusiform.     St.  1 — 4f  high.     Lfts.  nearly  1'  long  and  i  as 
wide,  cut  into  3,  obtuse  lobes.     Fls.  terminal,  on  the  nearly  naked  branches. 
Cal.  of  2,  ovate,  acuminate  sepals,  between  which,  placed  crosswise,  is  balanced 
the  cylindrical,  ringent  corolla,  beautifully  colored  with  alternating  shades  of  red 
and  yellow.     Apr. — JL 

2  C.  aftrea  Willd.     GOLDEN  CORYDALIS.     Sts.  low,  diffuse  (finally  ascending) ; 
leaf-lobes  acute ;  pods  pendulous ;  bracts  linear-lanceolate,  dentate,  as  large  as  the 
flower ;  rac.  secund,  opposite  the  leaves  and  terminal. — CD  In  rocky  shades,  Can. 
to  Ga.  and  La.     St.  8 — 12'  high,  with  finely  divided  leaves.     Fls.  bright  yellow, 
about  half  as  long  (4")  as  the  torulous  pods  which  succeed  them.     Apr. — Jl. 

4.  FUMARIA,  L.  FUMITORY.  (Lat.  fumus,  smoke ;  from  its  dis- 
agreeable odor.)  Sepals  2,  caducous  ;  petals  4,  unequal,  one  of  them 
spurred  at  the  base  ;  filaments  in  2  sets,  each  with  3  anthers  ;  nut 
ovoid  or  globous,  1-seeded  and  indehiscent. — Lvs.  cauline,  finely  dis- 
sected. 

F.  officinalis  L.  St.  suberect,  branched  and  spreading;  Ivs.  bipinnate;  rac, 
loose;  sep.  ovate-lanceolate,  acute,  about  as  long  as  the  globous,  retuse  nut. — 
A  small,  handsome,  smooth  plant,  10 — 15'  high,  in  sandy  fields  and  about  gar- 
dens, introduced  from  Europe.  Lfts.  cut  into  segments,  dilated  upwards,  Fls. 
email,  rose-colored,  nodding,  the  pedicels  becoming  erect  in  fruit,  and  twice  as  long 
as  the  bracts.  JL,  Aug.  §  Eur. 


ORDER  XIII.     CRUCIFEILE.     CRUCIFERS. 
2  ^  ^          6 


620.  A  flower  of  Sinapis  nipra.  1.  The  stamens  (4  long 
and  2  short)  and  pistil.  2.  Plan  of  the  flower, — stamens 
in  2  rows,  outer  row  half  wanting.  8.  A  silique, — 4.  partly 
open,  showing  the  septum  with  seeds  attached.  5.  Cross 
section  of  a  seed,  cotyledons  conduplicate  (0»).  6.  Cross 
section  of aseed  of  Capsella,  the  cotyledons  incumbent  (0 1). 
7.  Section  of  a  winped  seed  of  Arabis  Canadensis,  cotyle- 
dons accumbent  (0=). 

•  Herbs  with  a  pungent,  watery  juice,  and  alternate,  exstipulate  leaves,  with 
flowers  cruciform,  tetradynamous,  generally  in  racemes,  and  bractless.  Sepals  4, 
deciduous ;  petals  4,  hypogynous,  with  long  claws  and  spreading  limbs.  Stamens 
6,  the  2  outer,  opposite  ones  shorter  than  the  4  interior.  Ovary  2-carpeled,  2-celled 


ORDER  13.— CRUCIFER^E.  227 

by  a  false  partition,  with  parietal  placentae.  Fruit  a  silique,  or  silicle,  usually  2- 
celled.  Stigmas  2,  sessile.  Seeds  2-rowed  in  e,ach  cell,  but  often  so  intercalated 
as  to  form  but  one  row.  Embryo  with  the  2  cotyledons  variously  folded  on  the 
radicle.  Albumen  0. 

Illust  256,  812,  365,  447,  443. 

Genera  195,  species  1600.  This  is  a  very  natural  order,  larger  than  any  of  the  preceding. 
The  greater  part  of  the  species  are  found  in  the  temperate  zones.  Aboat  100  are  peculiar  to 
this  continent. 

Properties.  The  Crucifers  as  a  class  are  of  much  importance  to  man.  They  furnish  several 
alimentary  articles,  which  are  very  nutritions,  as  the  Turnip,  Cabbage,  Cauliflower ;  several 
others  are  used  as  condiments,  as  Mustard,  Radish,  Cochlearia,  etc.  They  all  possess  a  peculiar 
acrid,  volatile  principle,  dispersed  through  every  part,  often  accompanied  by  an  etherial  oil 
abounding  in  sulphur.  They  are  also  remarkable  for  containing  more  nitrogen  than  other  vege- 
tables, for  which  reason  ammonia  is  generally  evolved  in  their  putrefaction.  In  medicine  they 
are  eminently  stimulant  and  antiscorbutic.  None  are  really  poisonous,  although  very  acrid. 
The  root  of  Isatis  tinctoria  affords  a  blue  coloring  matter. 

Ob».  The  genera  of  this  large  order  were  arranged  into  sub-orders  by  De  Candolle,  according 
to  their  various  modes  of  folding  the  cotyledon  upon  the  radicle,  which  modes  are  as  follow;-: 
1.  Cotyledons  accumbent,  the  radicle  turned  round  and  applied  to  the  edges  of  the  cotyledons, 
represented  thus  0=.  2.  Cotyledons  incumbent,  the  radicle  applied  against  the  back  of  one  of 
the  cotyledons,  0  II .  8.  Cotyledons  conduplicate,  radicle  folded  as  in  the  last  case,  but  the  coty- 
ledons bent  so  as  partly  to  enfold  it,  0»,  as  in  the  mustard. 

In  the  analysis  of  the  Crucifers  it  is  indispensable  that  the  specimens  be  in  fruit  as  well  as 
flower,  and  that  the  student  bring  to  bear  all  Lis  patience  and  resolution  in  the  study  of  the 
above  and  other  forma  of  structure  in  the  seed,  however  minnte.  In  the  following  synopsis  the 
student  may  use  in  analysis  either  the  artificial  arrangement  of  the  Genera  or  the  less  obvioua 
but  more  natural  arrangement  of  the 

TRIBES. 

§  SILIQUOS^E,— fruit  a  silique  opening  by  valves.    (Tribes.) 

Tribe  1.  AKABIDE.E.    Seeds  flattened,  often  bordered  ;  cotyledons  0= Genera  1 — 10 

Tribe  2.  SISIMBRE.C.    Seeds  oblong,  not  bordered  ;  cotyledons  0 II Gen.  11 — 14 

Tribe  3.  BEASSICE-E.    Seeds  globular,  cotyledons  0».    Flowers  yellow Gen.  15, 16 

§§  SILICULOS^E,— fruit  a  silicle  opening  by  valves  when  more  than  2-seeded.    (Tribes.) 

Tribe  4.  AIYSSINE^E.     Dissepiment  broad.    Cotyledors  0= Gen.  17 — 21 

Tribe  5.  CAXEIJNBA     Dissepiment  broad.    Cotyledons  Oil Gen.  22,  23 

Tribe  6.  THLASPE.E.    Dissepiment  narrow.     Cotyledons  0= Gen.  24 

Tribe  7.  LEPIDINILE.     Dissepiment  narrow.     Cotyledons  0  || Gen.  25—27 

Tribe  8.  ISATIDE.E.    Dissepiment  0.     Silicle  1-seeded,  indehiscent Gen.  28 

§§§  LOMENTACE^E,— fruit  a  jointed  silique.  partitioned  across.    (Tribes.) 

Tribe  9.  CAKALINEJB.    Cotyledons  0=,  seeds  compressed Gen.  29 

Tribe  10.  KAPHANE^E.    Cotyledons  0»,  seeds  globous. Gen.  30 

ARTIFICIAL   KEY   TO   THE    GENERA. 

§  Fruit  a  silique.    Flowers  cyanic  (a).    Flowers  xanthic  (c)- 

a  Seeds  in  a  double  row Genera  1,  2 

a  Seeds  in  a  single  row  (b). 

b  Siliques  terete  (petals  showy,  purple) Genera  3,  4,  14 

b  Siliques  flattened, — no  stypo.     Petals  white Gen.  5 7 

b  Siliques  flattened,  on  a  filiform  stype.    Pet.  white Gen.  IS 

C  Seeds  globular  (0>>) / Gen.  15.  16 

C  Seeds  oblong  or  lens-shaped  (d). 

d  Siliques  terete  or  flattened,  veinless Gen.  8.  9 

d  Silique  squarish,  valves  each  1 — 3-veined Gen.  10 — 12 

§  Fruit  a  silicle  2-celled  (a)  or  1-celled  and  1-seeded  in  Isatis  (c). 
a  Siiicle  turgid  or  flattened  with  a  broad  partition  (b). 
a  Silicle  flattened  contrary  to  the  narrow  partition  (c). 

b  Native.     Flowers  cyanic Gen.  17,  IS,  2o 

b  Native.     Flowers  xanthic Gen.  1, 19,  22 

b  Exotic  garden  flowers,  variously  colored Gen.  20.  21 

C  Seeds  many Gen.  24,  25 

C  Seeds  2  only.    "Wild  and  cultivated Gen.  26,27 

C  Seedl  only.     Cultivated ...Gen.  2S 

§  Fruit  a  loment,— jointed  and  partitioned  crosswise ...  Gen.  29.  80 


228  ORDER  13.— CRUCIFER^B. 

1.  NASTURTIUM,  R.  Br.  WATER  CRESS.  (Lat.  nasus  tortus  ;  from 
the  effect  of  these  acrimonious  plants  upon  the  nose.)  Sepals  equal  at 
base,  spreading;  siliqucs  subterete,  generally  curved  upwards,  some- 
times shortened  so  as  to  resemble  a  silicic ;  valves  veinless ;  seeds 
small,  lens-shaped,  oo,  in  a  double  row  (0  — ). — Aquatic  plants  with 
pinnate  or  pinnatifid  Ivs. 

*  Petals  white.    Biliques  rather  long  (10— 12")  v. No.  1 

*  Petals  yellowf  Siliques  shortened  (4 — 8"),  but  longer  than  the  pedicels  (a). 

*  Petals  yellow.     Siliques  or  .silicles  (1— 6")  shorter  than  the  pedicels  (b). 

a  Leaves  pinnate  or  pinnatifid.    l)iff usely  branched Nos.  2,  8 

a  Leaves  lyrate,  or  merely  toothed.     Steins  erect Nos.  4,  5 

b  Petals  not  longer  than  the  calyx,  obscure Nos.  6,  7 

b  Petals  longer  than  the  calyx,  bright  yellow EJ  os.  8,  9 

1  N.  officinale  R.  Br.     ENGLISH  WATER  CRESS.     Lvs.  pinnate,  Ifts.  ovate,  sub- 
cordate,  repand;  petals  white,  longer  than  the  calyx. — If  Brooks  and  springy 
places,  rare.    (Yellow  Springs,  0.)   Sts.  decumbent,  thick,  branching,  6 — 12'  long. 
Lfts.   3 — 7,   broad,    mostly  rounded  at  base,    obscurely  toothed,   terminal  one 
largest.     Pis.  corymbed.     Siliques  hardly  1'  long.     Occasionally  cultivated  for 
salad.     May,  Jn.  §  \. 

2  N.  tanacetifolium  Hook.    TANSEY-LEAVED.    Upper  leaf  segm.  confluent,  lower 
distinct,  oblong  or  roundisli,  sinuate-toothed  teeth  obtuse;  pods  linear-oblong. — (j£) 
Damp  soils,   Ga.  and  Fla.,  W.  and  N.  W.  to  the  Miss.     Sts.  smooth,  diffusely 
branched  from  the  base,  4 — 12'  high.     Hoot  Ivs.  2 — 4'  long,  narrow,  regularly 
pinnate  with  19 — 15  segm.  in  the  larger  plants,  the  3  upper  segm.  often  conflu- 
ent.    Fls.  minute.     Pods  4 — 8"  long,  slightly  curved,  on  ped.  £  as  long,  and 
tipped  with  a  distinct  but  short  style.     Mar.,  May. 

/3.  OBTUSUM.     Lfts.  mostly  distinct,  oval,  obtuse;  pods  shorter  (3  to  5"),  twice 
longer  than  pedicel.     (N.  obtusum,  Nutt.) 

3  N.  Walter!.     Segm.  of  the  Ivs.  all  distinct,  narrow,  with  a  few  linear,  acute  lobes 
or  teeth;  pods  linear, — 14  ?  Ga.  (Feay  and  Pond.)  and  Car.     Rt.  thick,  blackish, 
with  many  strong  fibres.      Lvs.  numerous,   mostly  radical  or  subcauline,  1 — 2' 
long,  finely  dissected,  the  terminal  segm.  3-lobed.     Sts.  branched  from  the  base 
(only?),  3 — 5' high,  puberulent.      Fls.  minute.      Pods  slender,  about  5"  long, 
ped.  half  as  long ;  style  distinct.     Mar.,  Apr.     (Sisymbrium  Walteri  Ell.) 

4  N.  limosum  Nutt.     Lvs.   lanceolate,   toothed,  lower  ones  pinnatified  at  base 
(lyrate),  upper  entire  at  -base ;   pods    elliptic-oblong  (3 — 4").— @  Edges  of  the 
Miss.,  La.  (Hale.)     Glabrous.     Sts.  erect,  simple,  branched  only  at  top,  10 — 15' 
high.     Lvs.  all  cauline  and  petiolato,  the  lower  irregularly  divided  at  base,  where 
they  touch  the  water.     Rac.  several.     Fls.  minute.     Pods  on  very  short  pedicels, 
with  styles  much  shorter.     Apr.,  May.     Hardly  distinct  from  the  next. 

5  N.  sessiliflorum  Nutt.     Lvs.  cuneate-obovate,  repandly  toothed  or  sub-entire  ; 
pods  linear-oblong  (5 — 6"),  subsessile. — @  Banks  of  the  Miss.      Glabrous.      Sts. 
erect,  nearly  simple.       Lvs.    attenuated    at    base,  those    of   the  stem    nearly 
entira      Pis.  minute.      Rac.  elongated  in  fruit,  both  pods  and  stigmas  almost 
sessile.     Apr. — Jn. 

6  N.  palustre  DC.     MARSH  CRESS.      Glabrous ;  Ivs.  pinnately  lobed,  amplexical, 
lobes  confluent,  dentate ;    rt.  fusiform ;    pet.  as  long  as  the  sepals ;  silicle  spreading, 
turgid,  twice  longer  than  wide. — 1{  In  wet  places.    Stt  1 — 2f  high,  erect,  branched 
above.      Lvs.  2 — 3'  long,  all  more  or  less  pinnatified,  with  the  terminal  lobo 
large,  ovate.     Fls.  numerous,  small.    Silicle  3"  long,  pedicels  twice  as  long,  often 
deflexed.     Jn. — Aug. 

7  N.  hispidmn  DC.       Villous;  Ivs.  runcinate-pinnatified,   lobes  obtusety  dentate; 
silicles  tumid,  ovoid  or  globular,  the  pedicels  longer,  ascending;  pet.  scarcely  as 
long  as  the  calyx. — d)  Banks  of  streams  N.  H.  to  Penri.     Stem  angular,  branched, 
1 — 3f  high,  with   many  paniculate  racemes  above.      Lvs.   3 — 6'  long.      Fls. 
minute.     Silicles  1"  long,  on  pedicels  2 — 3"  long  and  somewhat  spreading.     Jn. 
— Aug. 

8  N.  sylvestre  R.  Br.    WOOD  CRESS.     Lvs.  pinnately  divided,  segm.  serrate  or  in- 
cised; pods  linear,  styk  very  short— Ij.  Wet  meadows,  near  Philadelphia  (Nutt); 


ORDER   13. — CRUCIFEILE.  229 

near  Boston  (Sprague).  Sts.  ascending  from  a  prostrate  base.  Fls.  rather  large 
and  showy.  Pet.  ^  longer  than  calyx.  Pods  nearly  £'  long,  the  pedicels  rather 
longer,  ascending.  Jn.,  JL  §  Eur. 

9  N.  sinuatum.  Nutt  Lvs.  pinnatified,  segm.  lance-oblong,  nearly  entire ;  pods 
oblong,  acute,  with  a  slender  style. — Banks  of  the  Miss,  opposite  St.  Louis,  southward, 
W.  to  Oregon.  Glabrous  and  diffusely  branched.  Lvs.  regularly  pinnatified,  the 
terminal  segm.  often  confluent.  Els.  rather  large  and  showy.  Pods  about  ^' 
long,  slightly  curved,  the  pedicels  still  longer,  spreading  or  recurved.  Jn. 

2.  TURRITIS,  Dillon.     TOWER  MUSTARD.     (Lat,  turritis,  turreted  ; 
from  the    pyramidal  form  of   the  plant.)      Sepals  erect,  converging ; 
silique  long,  linear,  2-edged  ;  valves  plain,  1 -veined  ;  seeds  in  a  double 
row  (margined  in  one  species)  (0=). — Fls.  white  or  rose-colored.  Stem 
Ivs.  mostly  saggittate-clasping. 

1  T.  glabra  L.     Fls.  (cream-white)  erect;  sUiques long  (3'),  strictly  erect;  stem-tvs. 
ovate  lanceolate. — (J)In  rocky  fields  about  New  Haven  (Eaton)  and  Can.    Glabrous. 
St.  round,  simple,  l£f  high.     Radical-lvs.  petiolate,  dentate;  cauline  arrow-shaped 
and  half-clasping  at  base,  smooth,  glaucous  and  entire.      SUiques  straight  and 
very  narrow.     May.     §  Eur. 

2  T.  stricta  Graham.     Fls.  (rose-white)  erect ;  silique  long  (3'),  erect,  finatty  ascend- 
ing, stem-lvs.  linear -lanceolate. — @  On  rocks,  N.  Y.  (rare),  "W.  to  Or.     Plant  glab- 
rous.    St.  straight,  erect,  simple,  1 — 2f  high.    Root-lvs.  spatulate,  remotely  den- 
ticulate ;  stem-lvs.  arrow  shaped,  clasping,  erect,  nearly  entire.      Rac.  terminal, 
elongated  in  fruit.     May. 

3  T.  brachycarpa  Torr  &  Gr.      Fls.  (pak-purpk)  nodding;  sUiques  shorler  (!'), 
spreading. — Lake  shores  Mich.      Glabrous  and  glaucous,  often  purplish.      Stem 
1 — 2f  high.     Root-lvs.  spatulate,  dentate ;  cauline  linear-lanceolate,  sagittate  and 
clasping.     Fls.  rather  large. 

3.  IODANTHUS,  Torr.  &  Gray.     FALSE  ROCKET.     (Gr.  «3<%  violet- 
colored,  dvOog,  flower,)     Calyx  closed,  shorter  than  the  claws  of  the 
petals ;  silique  linear,  terete,  veinless ;  seeds  arranged  in  a  single  row 
in  each  cell   (0=). — Glabrous,  with  violet-purple  flowers  in  panicled 
racemes. 

L  pinnatifida  Torr  &  Gr. — 7J.  Penn.  to  HI.,  S.  to  Ark.  St.  slender,  furrowed 
2 — 3f  high.  Lvs.  thin,  sharply  dentate,  3 — 5'  long,  £  as  wide,  the  lower  often 
lyrate-pinnatifid,  those  of  the  stem  lanceolate,  acuminate,  scarcely  petiolato. 
Rac.  terminal  and  axillary.  Petals  long-clawed,  with  an  obovate  border.  Pods 
torulous,  15 — 20"  long;  sds.  oblong,  plano-convex.  May,  Jn. 

4.  MATTHIOLA,  R.  Br.     STOCK.     (In  honor  of  P.  A.  Matthioli, 
physician  to  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  and  botanic  author.)     Calyx  closed, 
2  of  the  sepals  gibbous  at  base  ;  petals  dilated  ;  siliques  terete  ;  stigmas 
connivant,  thickened  or  cornute  at  the  back. — Herbaceous  or  shrubby, 
oriental  plants,  clothed  with  a  hoary,  stellate  pubescence. 

*  Perennial  or  biennial.    Stems  herbaceous. Nos.  1,  2. 

*  Perennial.     Steins  shrubby  at  base Xos.  3,  4. 

1  M.  animus  R.  Br.     TEN  WEEKS'  STOCK.     St.  erect,  branched ;  Ivs.  hoary- 
canescent,    lanceolate,    obtuse,    subdentate;    silique   subcylindrical. — (T)    A   fine 
garden  flower  from  S.  Europe.     St.  2f  high,  and,  with  the  leaves,  covered  with 
a  soft,  stellate  pubescence.     Fls.  variegated.     Jn.f 

2  M.  Graecus  R.  Br.    GRECIAN  STOCK.    St.  erect,  branched ;  Ivs.  lanceolate, 
glabrous;     siliques    somewhat    compressed. — @  From  Greece.     Plant  about   If 
high,  distinguished  from  the  remainder  of  the  genus  by  its  smooth  foliage.     Fls. 
white,  appearing  all  summer,  f 

3  M.  incanus  R.  Br.    PURPLE  JULY  FLOWER,    St  erect,  branched;  Ivs. lance- 
olate, entire,  hoary-canescent ;  siliques  subcylindrical,  truncate  and  compressed 


230  ORDER  13.— C^UCIFERJE. 

at  apex. — Ij-  One  of  the  most  popular  flowers  of  the  genus,  native  of  England, 
etc.  St.  2f  high.  Fls.  purple. — Several  varieties  are  enumerated,  as  the  double 
flowered,  Brompton  Stock,  Brompton  Queen.  Jn.f 

4  M.  fenestralis  R.  Br.  Erect,  simple;  Ivs.  crowded,  recurved,  undulate, 
downy;  eiliques  downy,  broadest  at  base. — ^  From  S.  Europe.  Plant  If  high. 
Fls.  numerous,  large,  purple.  Jl.,  Aug.f 

5.  DENTARIA,  L.      PEPPER-ROOT.      (Lat.  dens,  a  tooth  ;  from  the 
tooth-like   projections   of  the  rhizome.)     Sepals   converging ;    silique 
lance-linear,  with  flat,  veinless  valves,  often  opening  elastically ;  placentae 
not  winged  ;  sds.  in  a  single  row,  ovate,  not  bordered  ;  funiculus  broad 
(0  =  ). — Rhizome  2f .  Lvs.  palmately  divided,  those  of  the  stem  but  2 
or    3,    somewhat   whorled.      Fls.   white    or  purplish,    in   a   terminal 
raceme. 

•  Leaves  of  the  stem  sub-opposite  or  sub-verticillate Nos.  1 — 8 

•  Leaves  of  the  stem  alternate Nos.  4,  5 

1  D.  diph^lla  L.      St.  2-kaved  ;   I/is,  subovate;   rhizome  continuous,  toothed. — In 
woods  and  wet  meadows,   Can.   to  Car.,  "W.  to  the  Miss.      St.  about  If  high, 
round,  smooth,  with  2,  nearly  opposite,  ternate  leaves  above  the  middle.      Lfts. 
on  very  short  stalks,  the  lateral  ones  oblique,  all  with  rounded,  mucronate,  un- 
equal teeth.     Fls.  racemed,  large,  white ;  the  petals  much  larger  than  the  calyx. 
The  rootstock  is  long  and  large  in  proportion  to  the  plant,  beset  with  teeth,  with 
a  pungent,  aromatic  taste.     May. 

2  D.  laciniata  MuhL    '  Cauline  Ivs..  3,  3-parted,  the  divisions  lanceolate  or  linear- 
oblong,  obtuse,  lobed,  toothed  or  entire  ;  rhiz.  moniliform. — In  woods,  Can.  and  U. 
S.    The  rootstock  consists  of  several  connected  tubers  of  a  pungent  taste.    Stem 
]f  high,  smooth,  simple.     Lvs.  usually  in  a  whorl  about  half  way  up,  the  segm. 
with  very  irregular,  mucronate  teeth,   rarely  subentire,  lateral  ones  sometimes 
cut  nearly  to  the  base,  rendering  the  leaf  almost  quinate.      Root-lvs.  generally 
wanting.     Fls.  racemed,  purplish.     Apr.,  May. 

3  D.  multiflda  Muhl.       Cauline  Ivs.  mostly  3,  and  verticillate,  rarely  2,  multifid 
with  numerous  linear  lobes ;  rhiz.  tuberous. — -In  woods,  N.  Car,  to  Ala.,  rare.     St. 
6 — 10'  high.      Lvs.  finely  dissected  in  a  bi-  or  triternate  manner.      Fls.  white, 
smaller  than  in  the  above  species. 

4  D.  maxima  Nutt.     Stem  about  3-kaved  (2  to  7) ;  Ifts.  3,  ovate,  toothed  or  cleft ; 
rhiz.  moniliform,   the  tubers  toothed. — N.  Y.  and  Penn.,  rare.      Tubers  of  the 
rootstock  thick  as  the  finger,  an  inch  or  more  in  length.      St.  1 — 2f  high,  bear- 
ing a  lengthened  raceme,  with  pale  purple  flowers  which  are  larger  than  in  No.  1, 
and  several  alternate,  remote,  ternate,  petiolate  Ivs.     Lfts.  sharply  and  coarsely 
cut-toothed  or  lobed.     May. 

5  D.  heteroph^lla  Nutt.    St.  about  2-leaved  (2  or  3),  leaflets  3,  lanceolate  and  nearly 
entire;  root-lvs.  of  3,  ovate-oblong,  toothed  and  cut-lobed  Ifts. ;  rhiz.  moniliform, 
scarcely  toothed. — Penn.,  Va.,  Ky.      A  small  and  delicate  species,  some  6'  high. 
Tubers  of  the  root  few  (1 — 3),  oblong.     Eadical  If.  always  present,  long-petioled. 
The  alternate  stem-lvs.  small  (!'  long),  also  petiolate.      Fls.  few  (6 — 9),  pale- 
purple.     Jn. 

6.  CARDAMINE,  L.     BITTER  CRESS.     (Gr.  ttapdia,  heart,  da/zaw, 
to  strengthen ;  from  its  stomachic  properties.)     Calyx  a  little  spreading, 
silique  linear  with  flat,  veinless  valves^  narrower  than  the  dissepiment, 
and  often  opening  elastically  from  the  base  ;  stigma  entire  ;  seeds  not 
margined,  with  a  slender  funiculus  (0=).     Fls.  white  or  purple. 

*  Leaves  pinnate,  \vith  many  leaflets Nos.  1,  2 

*  Leaves  simple,  or  partly  ternate.    Boots  mostly  perennial,  (a) 

a  Style  slenfler.    In  low,  vet  grounds Nos.  3,  4 

a  Style  none.     In  high  mountains Nos.  5,  6 

1  C.  hirstita  L.     St.   (hirsute  in  Europe)  glabrous,  erect;  Ivs.  pinnately  5 — 11- 
foliate,  terminal  Ifl.  largest ;  fls.  (white)  small,  silique  erect,  linear  or  filiform ;  stig. 


ORDER  13.— CRUCIFEILE.  231 

minute,  sessile. — ©  Common  in  streams  and  springy  places  throughout  the  country. 
Aspects  various ;  st  varying  from  filiform  to  thick  and  fleshy.  Lfts.  few  or  many, 
regular  or  not,  lobed,  toothed,  angled  or  entire,  always  obtuse,  terminal  one  gen- 
erally 3-lobed.  Pods  always  torulous  and  straight  (except  in  /3)  about  1'  long. 
Mar. — Jn. 

/?.  YIRGIXICA  Hook.     Slender  and  delicate ;  Ifts.  1  or  2-toothed  ;  pods  filiform, 
incurved. — Grows  on  rocks  and  sandy  shores. 

2  C.  pratensis  L.    CTJCKOO  FLOWER.    St.  ascending,  simple, ;  Ivs.  pinnately  1 — 15- 
foliate,  Ifts.  petiolate,  subentire,  lower  ones  suborbicular,    upper   linear-lanceolate : 
sty.  distinct. — If  Swamps,  N.  Y.  to  Arc.,  Am.    "Whole  plant  smooth.     St.  round, 
seriate,  10 — 16'  high.     Lvs.  few,  1£— 2'  long,  including  the  petiole.     Lfts.  small 
or  minute,  regular.      Fls.  large  (6 — 8"  broad),  few.  in  a  terminal  raceme.      Pet 
white  or  rose-color.     Siliques  nearly  1'  in  length,  erect      Apr.,  May. 

3  C.   rhomboidea  DC.      Sts.  simple,  erect  or  ascending,   tuberiferous  at  base; 
siliques  linear-lanceolate. — "4  Wet  woods   and   meadows,   common.      Glabrous, 
8 — 14'  high.     Tubers  1  to  several,  roundish,  white,  bearing  one  or  several  stems. 
Radical  leaves  roundish,   long-stalked,    somewhat    cordate,    entire;    stem  Ivs. 
oblong  or  rhomboidal,  angular-subdentate,  the  upper  lanceolate,  sessile.      Ra- 
cemes one  or  two,  with  white,  showy,  flowers.     Styles  1"  long ;  stigmas  capitate. 
Apr. — Jn. 

fi.  PURPUREJL  Torr.      Slender,  erect,  few-leaved  and  purple-flowered. — Cleve- 
land, 0.,  &c.     May. 

4  C.  rotundifolia  MX.      St-s.  decumbent,  branching,  finally  stoloniferous  ;  Ivs.  all 
petiolate;  siliques  linear-subulate;  rt  fibrous. —  2£  Cool  springs  and  rivulets  in 
Mts.,  Penn.  to  Car.  (Buckley).     Prostrate  stems  or  runners  1 — 2f  in  length.    Lvs. 
roundish,  subcordate  angular,  the  lower  3-lobed  or  ternate,  with  the  terminal 
1ft.  much  the  largest.     Fls.  smaller  than  hi  N"o.  3,  white.      May,  Jn. 

5  C.  bellidifolia  L.       Lvs.  smooth,    orbicular-ovate,    nearly    entire,   petiolate; 
cauline  entire  or  3-lobed;  siliques  erect. —  Ij.  A  minute  species,  on  the  summits  of 
the  White  Mts.  (Storrs),  <fce. ;  also,  Arc.,  Am.  to  CaL      Stem   1£ — 3'  high.     Lva 
mostly  radical,  broadly  oval  or  ovate,  £'  long,  on   petioles  as  long  as  the  stems. 
Fascicles  corymbous,  each  of  3  or  4  white  flowers.     Pet.  oval,  obtuse,  about  twice 
as  long  as  the  calyx.     Jl. 

6  C.  spatulata   MX.      Lvs.   hirsute,   the  radical   spatulate,   petiolate ;    cauline 
sessile,  siliques  spreading. — (D  Mts.  of  Car.  and  Ga,      Sts.   decumbent^  slender, 
6 — 8'  long.      Lvs.  about  1'  in  length,  the  lower  entire,  obtuse ;  the  upper  some- 
what toothed,  narrow.      Rac.  several,   loose,   with   filiform,   spreading,  distant 
pedicels.     Fls.  white.     Pods  straight,  1'  long.     Apr. 

7.  ARABIS,  L.  ROCK  CRESS.  (Name  from  Arabia,  the  native  coun- 
try of  some  of  the  species.)  Sepals  mostly  erect ;  silique  linear  com- 
pressed ;  valves  each  with  one  or  three  longitudinal  veins,  seeds  in  a 
single  row  in  each  cell,  mostly  margined,  cotyledons  accumbent  or 
oblique. — Fls.  white. 

*  Leaves  (all  or  at  least  the  radical)  pinnatifld Nos.  1,  2. 

*  Leaves  all  undivided,  toothed  or  entire,  often  clasping,  (a) 

a  Siliques  short  (6—12")  and  straight.    Seeds  not  winged Nos.  8,  4. 

a  Siliques  longer  (1—2'),  straight  or  curved.    Seeds  not  winged '. Nos.  5,  6. 

a  Siliques  long  (3'),  curved,  pendant.    Seeds  winged Nos.  7,  8. 

1  A.  Ludoviciana   Meyer.     All  the  Ivs.  pinnatifid  or  pinnate,  smoothish;  st. 
branched  at  base ;  siliques  and  pedicels  ascending ;  sds.  bordered. — (D  N.  Car. 
and  Ky.  (Curtis)  to  (Macon)  Ga,     Sts.  6—10'  high,  slender.     Leaves  1—2'  long, 
at  first  rosulate,  of  6 — 9  pairs  of  oblong,  few-toothed  leaflets,   rachis  slightly 
winged.     Pods  7 — 10"  by  1",  valves  veiny.     Fls.  minute,  white.     Mar.,  Apr. 

2  A.  lyrata  L.     Upper  Ivs.  smooth,  linear,  entire ;  radical  Ivs.  lyrately  pinnatifid, 
often  pilous:  st.  branched  at  base;  pedicels  spreading;  siliques  erect,  seeds  not 
bordered.— (g)  On  rocky  hills,  Caa  and  Wis.  to  Va.     Sts.  declined  at  base,  6—12' 
high.     Root-lvs.  numerous,  rosulate,  1 — 3'  long,  £  as  wide,  petiolate,  pinnatifid  or 
sinuate-dentate,  upper  ones  sublinear  and  subentire.     Fls.  middle  size  (3"  long). 


S32  ORDER  13.— CURCIFER^E. 

Siliques  when  mature  1  \ — 2'  long,  1"  wide,  tipped  with  a  short  style.     Cotyledons 
obliquely  0=  or  nearly  0||.     Apr.,  May. 
P.  A  variety  (A.  PETR^EA  Lam.  ?)  has  very  slender,  upright  stems,  smooth,  a 

few  small,  incised  root-lvs.,  few  linear  stem-lvs.  and  cotyledons  wholly  0=. — 

Shores  of  the  great  lakes  (Ohio),  Can. 

3  A.  Thaliana  L.     MOUSE-EAR  CRESS.    Sts.  branched  at  base,  erect ;  Jvs.  pilous, 
oblong,  nearly  entire  ;  petals  twice  longer  than  calyx;  pods  erect,  squarish. — (g)  Rocks 
and  sandy  fields,  Vt.  to  111.  and  Car.     Whole  plant  pubescent  with  stellate-hairs. 
St.  several   from   the  same  root,  erect,  simple,  slender,  4 — 12'  high.     Root-lvs. 
rosulate,   petiolate,  1 — 2'  long,  cauline  appressed,  an  inch  long,  base  somewhat 
clasping.     Fls.  small,  white.     Pods  6 — 8"  long.     Cotyledons  obliquely  Oj.     May. 
§Eur.    (Sisymbrium,  Gay.) 

4  A.  deiitata  Torr.  &  Gr.     Sts.  branched  at  base,  diffuse;  Ivs.  roughish-downy, 
oblong,  sharply   toothed;  petals  hardly  longer  than  calyx;  pods  spreading. — (D 
River  banks,  N.  Y.  to  Mo.     Plant  scabrous  with  stellate  hairs.     Sts.  decumbent, 
a  foot  high.      Root-lvs.  2'  long  by  f ;  cauliue  half-clasping  with  an  auriculate 
base,  all  very  obtuse  and  irregularly  toothed.     Fls.  small,  whitish.     Pods  very 
slender,  1'  long.     May. 

5  A.  patens  Sullivant.     Erect,  pubescent;  cauline  Ivs.  coarsely  toothed ;  siliques 
spreading  and  curved  upwards,  beaked  with  a  distinct  style. — Rocky  banks  of  the 
Scioto,  0.  (Sullivant),  and  southward.     Sts.  1 — 2f  high.     Root-lvs.  rosulate,  petio- 
late ;  stem-lvs.  oblong-ovate  or  linear,  auriculate-clasping.    Fls.  rather  large  (5 — 6" 
broad),  white.     Pods  nearly  2'  long.     May. 

6  A.  hirsfcta  Scop.     Erect,  hirsute ;  radical  Ivs.  oblong-ovate,  tapering  to  a  pe- 
tiole, cauline  oval  or  lanceolate,  sagittate-clasping,  entire  or  toothed;   siliques 
straight,  erect ;  sty.   none. — @  Found  in  low,  rocky  grounds,  Can.  to  Va.,  W.  to 
Oregon.     Sts.  2  or  more  from  the  same  root,  round,  hairy  at  base,  near  a  foot 
high,  slender  and  parallel.     Lvs.  scarcely  dentate,  sessile,  with  heart-shaped  or 
arrow-shaped  bases,  the  upper  acute.   Fls.  greenish-white.   Siliques  1 — 2'  long.  Jn. 

7  A.  laevigata    DC.      Tall,  glaucous,    smooth;   stem-lvs.  linear-lanceolate,  and 
linear,  sagittate-clasping,  the  upper  entire ;  siliques  very  long,  linear,  at  length 
spreading  and  pendulous. — %  In  rocky  woods  and  low  grounds,  Can.  to  Tenn. 
and  westward.     St.  2f  high,  round,  simple,  or  branched  above.     Root-lvs.  often 
purplish,  obovate  and  oblong,  petiolate,  f — 1J'  long,  £  as  wide,  with  acute  teeth. 
Stem-lvs.  3 — 5'  long  and  very  narrow.     FK  erect,  greenish,  the  petals  hardly 
longer  than  the  calyx.     Siliques  3'  long,  scarcely  1"  wide.     May. 

8  A.  Canadensis  L.    SICKLE  POD.    Tall,  pubescent;  stem  Ivs.  lanceolate,  pointed 
both  ways,  sessile;  silique  subfakate,  veined,  pendulous. — ^  On  rocky  hills  Can. 
to  Ga.,  W.  to  Ark.     A  plant  remarkable  for  its  long,  drooping  pods  which  resem- 
ble a  sickle-blade,  or  rather  a  scythe.     St.  2 — 3f  high,  slender,  round,  smooth. 
Lvs.  3 — 5'  long,  \  as  wide,  the  lowest  early  marescent,  middle  and  upper  ones 
sessile  or  clasping,  with  narrow  bases,  remotely  denticulate.     Fls.  small,  the  nar- 
row, white  petals  twice  longer  than  the  calyx.    Pods  slender,  flattened,  3'  long. 
May,  Jn. 

8.  CHEIRANTHUS,  L.     WALL  FLOWER.     (Arabic  kheyry,  the  name 
of  a  certain  plant,  and  Gr.  dv6o$,  flower.)     Calyx  closed,  2  of  the  sepals 
gibbous  at  base  ;  petals  dilated  ;  silique  terete  or  compressed  ;  stigma 
2-lobed  or  capitate  ;  seeds  flat,  in  a  single  series,  often  margined.  (0=). 
Garden  perennials,  mostly  European.     Lvs.  undivided. 

C.  Cheiri  L.  St.  somewhat  shrubby  and  decumbent  at  base ;  Ivs.  entire  or 
slightly  dentate,  lanceolate,  acute,  smooth ;  branches  angular ;  petals  obovate ; 
eiliques  erect,  acuminate. — fM-  From  S.  Europe.  A  popular  garden  flower,  ad- 
mired for  its  agreeable  fragrance,  and  handsome  corymbous  clusters  of  orange 
or  yellow  flowers.  Plant  about  2f  high.  Jn.f 

9.  LEAVENW6RTHIA,    Torr.      (Named  for  Dr.  Leavenworth,  the 
discoverer.)     Calyx  rather  erect ;  petals  cuneate,  retuse  or  truncate ; 


ORDER  13.— CURCIFER^B.  233 

silique  flat,  linear  or  oblong,  valves  indistinctly  veined  ;  seeds  in  a  single 
row,  flattened,  wing-margined ;  embryo  nearly  straight,  curving  towards 
an  accumbent  form. — ©  Low,  smooth  herbs  with  lyrate-pinnatifid  Ivs. 
Fls.  yellowish. 

L.  Michauxii  Torr.  (and  L.  aurea  Torr.).  On  wet  rocks  S.  E.  Ky.  to  Texas. 
Plant  2 — 6'  high.  Lvs.  mostly  radical,  an  inch  or  two  in  length,  segm.  1 — 5, 
angular.  Fls.  at  first  solitary,  on  slender  scapes,  finally  racemed.  Petals  twice 
longer  than  the  sepals,  yellow,  at  least  its  broad  claws.  Pods  erect,  3 — 5 -seeded. 
Mar.,  Apr.  (Cardamine  uniflora,  MX.) 

10.  BARBAREA,  R.  Br.     WINTER  CRESS.     (In  honor  of  St.  Bar- 
bara who  discovered  [what  are  since  unknown]  its  medicinal  proper- 
ties.)    Sepals  erect ;  siliques  columnar,  2  or  4-angled,  valves  carinate 
with  a  mid- vein ;  seeds  in  a  single  row  (0=). — Lvs,  lyrate-pinnatifid. 
Fls.  yellow. 

1  B.  vulgaris  R.  Br.     Upper  Ivs.  toothed  or  pinnatifid  at  base  •;  siliques  obscurely 
Wangled,  pointed  with  the  style. — D  Fields  and  brooksides,  common,  N.  States. 
Whole  plant  glabrous.     St.  furrowed,  1 — 2f  high,  branching  above.     Lower  Ivs. 
lyrate  pinnatifid,  with  small,  oblong  pinnae,  and  a  large,  broad-ovate,  terminal  lobe, 
dark  green,  shining,  with  clasping  petioles ;  upper  Ivs.  sessile,  all  very  obtuse. — Fls. 
in  dense  racemes.   Pods  about  9"  long,  usually  curved,  ascending  or  erect.  May,  Jn. 

2  B.  precox  R.  Br.     BELLE  ISLE  CRESS.     SCURVY  GRASS.     Upper  Ivs.  pinnati- 
fid, with  the  lobes  all  linear-oblong;  silique  1-edged. — ^  Cultivated  southward 
for  salad,  and  sparingly  naturalized.     St.  slender,  If  high.     Lower  Ivs.  with  the 
terminal  lobe  ovate.     Siliques  2  or  3'  long.     Apr.,  Jn. 

11.  ERYSIMUM,  L.    FALSE  WALL  FLOWER.   (Gr.  epvw,  to  cure ;  from 
its  salutary  medicinal  properties.)     Calyx  closed;    siliques  columnar, 
3-sided,  valves  with  a  strong  mid-vein  •  stigma  capitate  ;  seeds  in  a  sin- 
gle series  ;  cotyledons  oblong,  0||. — FK.  yellow, 

1  E.  cheiranthoides  L.     Pubescence  minute,  appressed,  branched;  Ivs.  lanceo- 
late, denticulate,  or  entire ;  fls.  small ;  siliques  short  (8 — 10"),  on  slender,  spread- 
ing pedicels;  stig.  small,  nearly  sessile. — (D  By  streams  and  in  wet  grounds,  U.  S. 
and  Can.,  not  common.    St.  erect,  1 — 2f  high,   often  branched,  and,  with  the 
leaves,  scabrous.     Lvs.  acute  at  each  end,  1 — 2'  long,  £  as  wide.     Fls.  small,  yel- 
low, in  long  racemes.     Siliques  \  to  near  1'  in  length,  linear,   and  somewhat 
spreading.     Jl. 

2  B.  Arkansanum  Xutt.    YELLOW  PHLOX.     Scabrous,  with  an  appressed  pu- 
bescence ;  st.  simple ;  Ivs.  linear-lanceolate,  remotely  dentate,  sessile,  lower  ones 
runcinate-toothed ;  inflorescence  racemous,  corymbed  at  summit ;  siliques   long 
(3'),  erect,  on  short,  erect  pedicels ;  stig.  capitate. — ^)  A  fine  plant,  with  large, 
showy  flowers,  resembling  the  wall-flower,  on  bluffs  along  rivers,  Ohio  to  Ark. 
St  1 — 3f  high,  slender.    Lvs.  2 — 3'  by  3 — 6".    Sep.  straw-colored.    Petals  large, 
bright-orange  yellow.     Siliques  3'  long.     Jn.,  Jl. 

12.  SISYMBRIUM,  Allioni.     (An  ancient  Greek  name.)     Calyx  half- 
spreading,  equal  at  base;  petals  unguiculate,  entire :  silique  subterete, 
valves  concave,  marked  lengthwise  with  1 — 3  veins;  style  very  short; 
seeds  in  a  single  series,  ovoid,  0[|, — Fls.  (yellow)  small. 

1  S.  officinale  Scop.  HEDGE  MUSTARD.  Lvs.  runcinate ;  rac.  slender,  vlrgate ; 
siliques  subulate,  erect,  closely  appressed  to  the  rachis. — T)  A  common  weed,  hi 
fields,  roadsides,  rubbish,  etc.,  Can.  and  U.  S.  St  1 — 3f  high,  with  spreading 
branches.  Lower  Ivs.  3 — 8'  by  1 — 3',  the  lower  segments  placed  at  right  angles 
to  the  midvein,  or  pointing  backwards,  the  terminal  segment  largest  Upper  Ivs, 
in  3  lanceolate  segments  at  right  angles.  Fls.  small,  yellow,  terminating  the  ra- 


234  ORDER  13— CRUCIFER^E. 

ceme,  which  becomes  1— 2f  long,  and  environed  by  the  appressed  sessile  pods. 
Jn.,  Sept.     Medicinal.   §  Eur. 

2  S.  Sophia  L.  FLIXWEED.    Los.  bipinnatiftd,  lobes  linear-oblong,  acute,  incised ; 
sepals  longer  than  the  petals ;  silique  linear,  slender,  erect,  longer  than  the  spread- 
ing pedicel.— Plattsburg,  N.  Y.  (Mrs.  Conant),  and  Can.  along  the  St.  Lawrence. 
Stems  erect,  1 — 2f  high.     Leaves  ovate  hi  outline,  finely  dissected,  almost  tripin- 
natifid.     Fls.  very  small,  pale  yellow.     Siliques  1'  long,  very  narrow,  in  long 
racemes.     July. 

3  S.  canescens  Nutt.    TANSEY  MUSTARD.    Lvs.  bipinnately  divided,  canescent, 
lobes  oblong  or  lanceolate,  subdentate,  obtuse;  pstals  about  equalling  the  calyx ; 
siliques  oblong-linear,  ascending,  shorter  (or  never  longer)  than  the  spreading  pedi- 
cels.— (T  Arctic  Sea  to  Florida.     Plant  1 — 2f  high,  often  nearly  smooth.     Lvs. 
about  3'  long,  sessile,  lance-oblong  in  outline,  segm.  5 — 7  pairs,  finely  divided. 
Fls.  very  small    Siliques  3 — 6"  in  length,  the  seeds  somewhat  2-rowed.  Variable. 
Mar.,  Jn. 

13.  WAREA,  Nutt.     (Named  in  honor  of  Mr.  Ware,  the  discoverer.) 
Sepals  colored,  ligulate ;  petals  with  very  slender  claws,  longer  than 
the  lamina;  silique  flattened,  long  and  slender,   raised  on  a  slender 
stipe ;  stamens  nearly  equal,  0||. — (D  Glabrous,  entire-leaved  plants,  with 
the  aspect  of  Cleome.    Fls.  white  or  purple,  in  short  racemes.    Siliques 
curved  and  declinate. 

1  W.  cuneifolia  Nutt.     Lvs.  oblong,  obtuse,  cuneate  at  base,  and  sub-sessile. — 
Dry  hills,  G-a.  (Mettauer)  and  Fla.     St.  1 — 2f  high,  branched  above.     Lvs.  \ — 1' 
long,  rather  thick,  the  upper  linear.    Fls.  in  showy  clusters  at  the  summits  of  the 
branches,  white  or  purplish.     Pedicels  divergent.     Sta.  exserted,  with  the  anth- 
ers finally  circinate.     Petals  with  remarkably  slender  claws  2"  in  length,  lamina 
1".     Siliques   !£'  or  more  in  length,  4  times  longer  than  the  filiform  stipe. 
Jn.,  Aug. 

2  W.  amplexifdlia  Nutt.    Los.  oblong-ovate,  partly  clasping. — Op  Fla.     In  all 
other  respects  like  No.  1,  and  in  all  probability  not  distinct  from  if. 

14.  HESPERIS,  L.      ROCKET.      (Gr.    eairepa,    evening;    when   the 
flower  is  most  fragrant.)     Calyx  closed,  furrowed  at  base,  shorter  than 
the  claws  of  the  petals ;  petals  bent  obliquely,  linear  or  obovate ;  sil- 
ique  4-sided,    2-edged   or   subterete ;    seeds    not   margined ;    stigmas 
forked,  with  the  apices  converging  (0||). — Fls.  cyanic. 

1  H.  matronalis  L.   St.  simple,  erect;  Ivs.  lanceolate-ovate,  denticulate;  petals 
emarginate,  mucronate ;  pedicels  as   long  as  the  calyx. — A  fine  garden  peren- 
nial, said  to  be  found  native  about  Lake  Huron.     St.  3 — 9f  high.     Fls.  purple, 
often  double,  and  white  in  /3  hortensis.   f   Eur.        .   , 

2  H.  aprica  L.     St.  erect,  simple,  pubescent :  Ivs.  oblong,  obtuse,  entire,  ciliate 
hispid;  pedicels  as  long  as  the  calyx. — If  From  Siberia.     Stem  a  foot  high. 
Fls.  purple.     May,  Jn.,  f. 

15.  SINAPIS,  Tourn.   MUSTARD.    (The  Greek  name,  oivani.)    Sepals 
equal  at  base,  spreading;  petals  ovate,  with  straight  claws;  siliques 
subterete  ;  valves  veined ;  style  short  and  subulate,  or  cnsiform  ;  seeds 
in  a  single  series,  globular  (6»). — Fls.  always  yellow. 

1  S.  nigra  L.  BLACK  MUSTARD.  Smooth;  silique  smooth,  somewhat^  4-angkd, 
appressed  to  the  rachis,  and  beaked  with  a  slender,  4-sided  style. — CD  In  culti- 
vated grounds  and  waste  places.  St.  3 — 6f  high,  round,  smooth,  striate,  branch- 
ing. Lvs.  all  petiolate,  lower  ones  variously  lyrate  and  dentate,  upper  ones 
lance-linear,  pendulous,  entire.  Sep.  and  pet.  sulphur-yellow.  Pods  very  nume- 
rous, nearly  1'  long.  Sds.  numerous,  small,  globous,  nearly  black,  well  known 
as  a  condiment.  Jn.,  July.,  |  §  Eur. 


ORDER  13.— CRUCIFEE^.  235 

2  S.  arv6nsia  L.  FIELD  MUSTARD.  St.  and  leaves  hairy;  silique  smooth,  many- 
angled^  torulous,  spreading,  about  3  times  longer  than  the  slender,  andpital  style. — ® 
Naturalized  in  N.  T.  (T.  and  G.)  and  in  Vt.  (Robbing).  Lower  Ivs.  large,  subly- 
rate-pinnatifid,  upper  ones  oblong-ovate,  all  repand-toothed.  Silique  somewhat 
spreading,  1^'  long.  Sds.  large  and  black.  Jn.,  Aug.,  §  Eur. 

3  S  alba  L.  WHITE  MUSTARD.  Lv?.  smoothish;  siliques  hispid,  torose, 
shorter  than  the  ensiform  beak  sds.  large,  pale  yeUow. — 1)  Native  of  Europe.  St. 
2 — 5f  high,  thinly  hirsute.  Lvs.  all  lyrately  pinnate,  dentate,  petiolate.  Siliques 
spreading,  about  4-seeded.  The  seeds  are  used  for  about  the  same  purposes  as 
those  of  S.  nigra,  esteemed  in  medicine.  Jn.,  JL  \. 

16.  BRASSICA,  L.     CABBAGE,  etc.      (Celtic  bresic,  the  cabbage.) 
Sepals  equal  at  base,  (mostly)  erect ;  petals  obovate  ;  filaments  without 
teeth ;  silique  sub-compressed,  valves   concave,  with  a  central    vein ; 
style  short,  subterete,  obtuse ;  seeds  globous,  in  a  single  (often  double) 
row  (0»). — Fls.  yellow. 

1  B.  campestris  L.  CALE.  Lvs.  somewhat  fleshy  and  glaucous,  the  lower  lyrate- 
dentate.  subciliate,  upper  ones  cordate-amplexicaul,  acuminate. — ®  Cultivated 
fields  and  waste  places.  St.  li — 3f  high,  with  a  few,  scattered,  reversed  hairs 
below.  Lower  Ivs.  3 — 7'  long,  *J  as  wide,  upper  smaller,  entire,  with  rounded 
clasping  lobes  at  base,  tapering  to  an  obtuse  point  Rac.  1 — 2f  long.  Sep. 
erect,  spreading.  Cor.  yellow,  4 — 5"  diam.  Siliques  !£'  long,  with  the  style  $'. 
Sds.  small,  dark  browa  Jn.,  JL  §  Sweden. 

/3  RUTABAGA.  SWEDISH  TURNIP.  Rt.  tumid,  napiform,  subglobous,  yellowish. 
— Cultivated  like  the  common  turnip:  but  after  a  thorough  experiment,  it  is 
conceded  oy  farmers  to  be  inferior  in  value  to  that  root,  although  it  grows  to 
an  enormous  size.  |. 

2  B.  rapa  L.     Radical  Ivs.  lyrate,  rough,  not  glaucous,  cauline  ones  incised, 
upper  entire,  smooth.  \. 

p  DEPRESSA.  COMMON  TURNIP.  Rt.  depressed,  globous  or  napiform,  contracted 
below  into  a  slender  radicle.— <D  Long  cultivated  for  the  table,  etc.,  in  gar- 
dens and  fields.  St.  2 — 4f  high,  and  with  the  leaves  deep  green.  Upper 
Ivs.  amplexicaul.  Pods  1'  long.  Sds.  small,  reddish-brown.  Jn.  ^ 

3  B.  oleracea  L.    CABBAGE.    Lvs.  very  srr^ooth  and  glaucous,  fleshy,  repand- 
toothed  or  lobed. — (g;  Native  of  Europe,   where  it  grows  on  rocky  shores  and 
cliffs,  with  no  appearance  of  a  head,  forming  a  surprising  contrast  with  the  cul- 
tivated varieties.     The  excellence  of  the  cabbage  as  a  pot-herb  needs  no  en- 
comium. \ 

&  BULLATA.  SAVOY  CABBAGE.  Lvs.  curled,  subcapitate  when  young,  finally 
expanding. 

y  BOTRYTIS-CAULIFLORA.  CAULIFLOWER.  St.  low ;  hds.  thick,  compact,  termi- 
nal ;  fls.  abortive,  on  short,  fleshy  peduncles.  J. 

6  BOTRYTIS  ASPARAGOIDES.  BROCCOLI.  St.  taller ;  hds.  subramous ;  branches 
fleshy  at  the  summit,  consisting  of  clusters  of  abortive  flower-buds.  J. 

e  CAPITATA.  HEAD  CABBAGE.  St.  short;  Ivs.  concave,  packed  in  a  dense 
head  before  flowering  ;  rac.  paniculate.  J. 

17.  ALYSSUM,  L.     MADTTORT.     (Gr.  a,  privative,  Avooa,  rage  ;  sup- 
posed by  the  ancients  to  allay  anger.)     Calyx  equal  at  base;  petals 
entire;  some  of  the  stamens  with  teeth  ;   silicic  orbicular  or  oval,  with 
valves  flat  or  convex  in  the  centre ;  seeds  1 — 4  in  each  cell  (0=). — 
Showy  European  herbs. 

1  A.  saxatile  L.  ROCK  ALYSSUM.  MADWORT.  St  suffruticous  at  base,  sub- 
corymbous;  Ivs.  lanceolate,  entire,  downy;  silicle  obovate-orbicular,  2-seeded ;  sds. 
margined. — An  early-flowering  garden  perennial,  native  of  Candia.  St.  If 
high,  with  numerous  yellow  flowers  in  close  corymbous  bunches.  Apr., 
May.  f. 


236  ORDER  13.—  CRTJCIFERJE. 

2  A.  maiitimum  Lara.  SWEET  ALYSSUM.  St.  suffruticous  and  procumbent 
at  base  ;  Ivs.  linear-lanceolate,  acute,  somewhat  hoary  ;  pods  oval,  smooth.  — 
1£  A  sweet-scented  garden  plant,  with  fine  leaves  and  small  white  flowers. 
St.  a  foot  in  length.  Fls.  from  Jn.  to  Oct  —  All  the  species  of  Alyasum  are  of 
easy  culture  in  common  loamy  soils,  f. 

\ 

18.  LUNARIA,  L.  HONESTY.  (Lat.  luna,  the  moon  ;  from  the  broad, 
round  silicles.)  Sepals  somewhat  bisaccate  at  base  ;  petals  nearly  en- 
tire ;  stamens  without  teeth  ;  silicic  pedicellate,  elliptical  or  lanceolate, 
with  flat  valves  ;  funiculus  adhering  to  the  dissepiment  (0=). 

1  L.  rediviva  L.    PERENNIAL  SATIN  FLOWER.     St.  erect,  branching;  Ivs. 
ovate,  cordate,  petiolate,  mucronately  serrate;   silicles    lanceolate,   narrowed  at 
each  end,  —  If  From  Germany.     Stem  2  —  3f  high.    Fls.  light  purple.     Jn.f 

2  L.  biennis  DC.   HONESTY.    St.  erect  ;  Ivs.  with  obtuse  teeth  ;  silicles  oval, 
obtuse  at  both  ends.  —  ©  These  are  large,  hairy  plants,  native  of  Germany.     Sts. 
3  —  4f   high.      Lvs.    cordate.        Fls.  lilac-colored.      The  broad,  round,  silvery 
eilicles  are  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  plants.     May,  Jn.f 


19.  DRABA,  L.  WHITLOW  GRASS.  (Gr.  dpa/}?/,  acrid,  biting  ;  from 
the  taste  of  the  plant.)  Calyx  equal  at  base;  petals  equal  ;  filaments 
without  teeth  ;  silicic  oval  or  oblong,  entire,  the  valves  flat  or  slightly 
convex,  veined  ;  seeds  not.  margined,  2-rowed  in  each  cell  (0=).  —  Fls. 
white,  rarely  yellow.  Plants  small. 

|  ERIOPIIILA  (DC.).   Petals  2-parted  ...................................................  No.  1 

§  DRABA  proper.    Petals  entire  or  only  emarginate.  (a) 

a  Stylo  long  or  short,  but  distinct.    Plants  perennial  ____  .  ..............  Nos.  2,  8 

a  Style  none     Plants  annual  or  biennial,  (b) 

b  Pedicel  as  long  as  or  longer  than  the  silicic  ..............  Nos.  4,  5 

b  Pedicel  shorter  than  the  silicic  ..........................  Nos.  6,  7 

1  D.  (Eriophila)  verna  L.      WHITLOW   GRASS.      Scape  naked;  Ivs.  oblong, 
acute,  subserrate,  hairy  ;  petals  bifid  ;  stig.  sessile  :    silicle  oval,  flat,  shorter  than 
the  pedicel.  —  (D  A  little,   early-flowering  plant  in  grassy  fields,  rather  rare,  Can. 
to  Ya.      Lvs.  all  radical,  lanceolate,  \  —  1  J'  long,  -J-  as  wide,  with  a  few  teeth 
towards  the  end.      Scape  a  few  inches  high,  with  a  rac.  of  5  —  15  small,  white 
flowers.     Cal.  spreading.     Petals  cleft  half  way  down.     Silicles  about  a  line  wide 
3"  long,  with  deciduous  valves.     Apr.,  May. 

2  D.  arabisans  MX.     St.  leafy,  erectly  branched,  pubescent;   Ivs.  lanceolate, 
minutely  dentate  ;  silicle  oblong-lanceolate,   smooth,  longer  than  the  pedicel  ;  sty. 
short  but  distinct.  —  Lake  shores,  Willoughby,  Vt.,   N.  Y.,  Mich.      Sts.  several 
from  the  same  root,  6  —  8'   high.      Radical  Ivs.  about  1'  long,  forming  rosulate 
tufts  at  the  top  of  the  short  radical  shoots  ;  cauline  somewhat  clasping.      Fls. 
white,  in  a  short  raceme.      Silicles  elongated  (4  —  6"),  twisted  when  ripe  so  as  to 
appear  double.     May. 

3  D.   ramosissima   Desv.      Minutely  pubescent;   sts.  numerous;   Ivs.  linear- 
lanceolate,  with  remote  and  sknder  teeth,  upper  ones  entire;   rac.  corymbously 
paniculate  ;  silicle  lanceolate,  about  the  length  of  the  pedicel,  the  style  half  as  long. 
—  On  rocks,  Harper's  Ferry,  Va.,  W.  to  Ky.    ^Sts.  slender,  4  —  10'  long,  the  bar- 
ren ones  with  tufted  leaves  at  top.     Lvs.  about  1'  long,  with  one  or  two  teeth  on 
each  side.     Fls.  white.     Silicles  3"  in  length,  ascending.     Apr.,  May. 

4  D.  nemoralis  Ehrh.     St.  pubescent,  branched;  Ivs.  oval,  cauline,  lanceolate, 
toothed  ;  pet.  emarginate  ;  silicles  oblong-elliptical,  half  the  length  of  the  pedicels  ; 
seeds  nearly  30.  —  Mich.,    Mo.      Plant   slender,   8  —  10'  high.      St.  with  a  few 
branches.     Lvs.  mostly  radical.      Rac.  much  elongated  in  fruit,  with  very  long 
pedicels.     Fls.  minute,  yellowish-  white.     May. 

5  D.  brachycarpa   Nutt.       Minutely  pubescent  ;    radical  Ivs.   roundish-ovate, 
petiolate,  cauline  oblong  or  linear,  slightly  dentate  or  entire  ;  rac.  many-flowered, 
straight,  elongated  in  fruit  ;  petals  obovate,  entire  ;  silicle  oval,  glabrous,  about  as 
long  as  the  pedicels,   10  —  12-seeded.  —  If.  Grassy  places  near  St.  Louis,  S.  to  La. 


- 


ORDER  13.— CRTJCIFER^E.  237 

St  branched  and  leafy,  2 — 4'  high.  Silicles  scarcely  2"  in  length.  Mar., 
Apr. 

6  D.  cuneifolia  Nutt     Hirsute,  pubescent;    st.  branching  and  leafy  below, 
naked  above;    Ivs.   cuneate-oblong,  sessile,   denticulate;    rac.    elongated  in  fruit; 
silides  twice  longer  than  the  pedicels,  20 — 3Q~seeded. — Fields,  Ky.  to  La.     Plant 
3 — 8  high.    Fls.  much  larger  than  in  the  preceding.     Petals  white,  nearly  thrice 
longer  than  the  sepals.    Mar.,  Apr. 

7  D.   Caroliniana  Walt.     Lvs.    ovate-roundish,   entire,    hispid;   silides  linear, 
smooth,  longer  than  the  pedicels,  corymbous,  30 — iO-seeded. — Sandy  fields,  Ct, 

R.  I.,  S.  to  Ga.  St.  1 — 3'  high,  leafy  at  base,  hispid,  naked  and  smooth  above. 
Lvs.  clustered  on  the  lower  part  of  the  stem,  very  hairy.  Petals  white,  twice  as 
long  as  the  sepals.  Silicle  6"  long,  rather  obtuse,  smooth  (or  minutely  hispid  hi 
p  ?).  Apr.-^Jn.  (D.  micrantha  Nutt.) 

20.  ARMORACIA,  Hupp.     HORSE   RADISH.     (Armorica,  its  native 
country,  now  the  province  Brittany,  France.)       Calyx  equal   at  base, 
spreading ;  petals  entire,  much  exceeding  the  calyx ;  filaments  tooth- 
less ;  silicles  ellipsoid  or  globular,  turgid,  1-celled  from  the  incomplete 
partition;    styles  distinct;    seeds  few   (0=). —  U    Lvs.  oblong,  undi- 
vided, or  the  lower  pinnatifid.     Fls.  white. 

1  A.  nisticana  Hupp.      Radical  Ivs.  oblong,  crenate ;  cauline  long,  lanceolate, 
dentate  or  incised,  sessile ;  silicle  roundish,  ellipsoid,  much  longer  than  the  style. 
— 1±  A  common  garden  herb,  sparingly  naturalized  in  wet  grounds.     Rt.  fleshy, 
large,  white,  very  acrid.     St.  2 — 3f  high,  angular,  smooth,  branching.      Radical 
Ivs.  near  a  foot  long,  \  as  wide,  on  long  channeled  petioles.      Lower  stem-lvs. 
often  cut  in  a  pinnatifid  manner,  upper  toothed  or  entire.       Fls.  not  large. 
Silicle  much  shorter  than  the  spreading  pedicela     The  root  is  a  well  known  con- 
diment for  roast  beef  and  other  viands.     Jn.     §  Eur.     (Cochlearia  L.) 

2  A.   Americana   Arn.      Aquatic;    immersed  leaves   doubly  pinnatifid  with 
capillary  segments,  emersed  oblong,  pinnatifid,  serrate  or  entire;  silicle  ovoid, 
little  longer  than  the  style. — Lakes  and  rivers,  Can.,  N.  Y.  to  Ky.     Fls.  not  large 
(4"  broad).     Silicle  2"  long,  on  long  spreading  pedicels,  much  as  in  No.  1.     (Nas- 
turtium lacustre  Gray.     N.  natans  (3.  Americanum  ejusd.     Cochlearia  aquatica 
Eaton,?) 

21.  VESICARIA,  Lam.     BLADDER-POD.     (Lat.  vesica,  a  bladder  or 
blister ;  from  the  inflated  silicles.)      Petals  entire ;  silicle  globous  or 
ovoid;  inflated  valves  nerveless,  hemispherical  or  convex;  seeds  several 
in  each  cell,  sometimes  margined  (0  =  ). — Fls.  yellow. 

1  V.  Shortii  Torr  &  Gr.  Lvs.  elliptical,  sessile,  entire ;  style  twice  as  long  as  the 
globous  silicle;  sds.  2 — 4,  not  margined. — ®  Banks  of  Elkhorn  Creek,  near 
Frankfort,  Ky.  (Short,  in  North  Am.  Flora.)  St.  decumbent,  about  a  span  long, 
slender,  stellately  pubescent.  Lvs.  6 — 12"  long.  Pedicels  6"  long,  and  the  silicle 
as  large  as  the  fruit  of  Coriander. 

22.  CAMELINA,  Crantz.     FALSE  FLAX.     (Gr.  %afial,  dwarf,  AtVov, 

flax.)  Calyx  equal  at  base;  petals  entire;  silicle  obovate  or  sub- 
globous,  with  ventricous  valves  and  many-seeded  cells  ;  styles  filiform, 
persistent;  seeds  oblong,  striate,  not  margined  (0||). — Fls.  small  yel- 
low. 

C.  sativa  Crantz.  Lvs.  lanceolate,  sagittate  at  base,  subentire ;  silicle  obovate- 
pyriform,  margined,  tipped  with  the  pointed  style. — '!)  In  cultivated  fields.  St 
£—  2£'  high,  straight,  erect,  branching.  Lvs.  roughish,  1 — 2'  long,  clasping  the 
stem  with  their  acute,  arro \v-shaped  lobes.  Fls.  in  paniculated  raceme-.  Silicles 
3 — 4"  long,  on  pedicels  2 — 3  times  as  long.  Said  to  be  cultivated  in  Germany 
for  the  oil  which  is  expressed  from  the  seeds.  Jn.  §  Eur. 


*238  ORDER   13.— CRUCIFER^S. 

23.  SUBULARIA,  L.      AWLWORT.      (Named  in  reference  to   the 
linear-subulate  leaves.)     Silicle  oval,  valves  turgid,  cells  many-seeded ; 
stigma  sessile  ;  cotyledons  linear,  curved  and  incumbently  folded  on 
themselves. — (D  Aquatic  acaulescent  herbs. 

S.  aquatica  L. — A  small  plant,  growing  on  the  muddy  shores  of  ponds  in  Me.  and 
N.  H.  Lvs.  all  radical,  entire,  subulate,  an  inch  in  length.  Scape  2 — 3'  high,  ra- 
cemous,  with  a  few  minute  white  fls.  on  slender  pedicels,  only  2"  in  length.  Jl. 

24.  IBERIS,  L.     CANDYTUFT.     (Most  of  the  species  are  natives  of 
Iberia,  now  Spain.)      The   2   outside  petals  larger  than  the  2  inner ; 
silicles  compressed,  truncate,  emarginate,  the  cells  1-seeded. — Handsome 
herbs  from  the  Old  World,  pretty  in  cultivation.     Fls.  white  or  purple. 

1  I.  umbellata   L.      Herbaceous,  smooth;  Ivs.  linear-lanceolate,  acuminate, 
lower  ones  serrate,  upper  ones  entire ;  silicles  umbellate,  acutely  2-lobed.— This  and 
the  following  species  are  very  popular  garden  annuals,  very  pretty  in  borders 
and  of  very  easy  culture.     I.  umbellata  is  from  S.  Europe.      St.  If  high.     Fls. 
purple,  terminal  in  simple  umbels,  and  like  the  rest  of  the  genus  remarkable 
for  having  the  2  outer  petals  longer  than  the  2  inner  ones.     Jn.,  JL  f 

2  I.  amara  L.    BITTER  CANDYTUFT.    Herbaceous;  Ivs.  lanceolate,  acute,  some- 
what toothed ;    fls.  corymbed,  becoming  racemed ;   silicles  obcordate,  narrowly 
emarginate. — (T)  Native  of  England.     St.  If  high.     Fls.  white.      Jn.,  Jl.  f 

3  I.  pinnata  L.     Herbaceous,  smooth;  Ivs.  pinnatifid;  rac.  corymbous,  but 
little  elongated  after  flowering. — CD  From  S.  Europe.      Plant  If  high.      Fls. 
white.    Jn. — Aug.  f 

4  I.  saxatilia  L.     Shrubby ;  Ivs.  linear,  entire,  somewhat  fleshy,  rather  acute, 
smooth  or  ciliate ;   fls.  in  corymbs. — CD  From  S.  Europe.    Nearly  If  high.    Fls. 
white.     Apr. — Jn.  f     (Obs. — Twenty-four  species  of  the  Iberis  have  been  des- 
cribed, others  of  which  are  less  known,  but  equally  ornamental  with  those 
above-  mentioned.) 

25.  CAPSELLA,  Vent.     (Derived  from  capsa,  a  chest  or  box ;  allud- 
ing to  the  fruit.)      Calyx  equal  at  base ;  silicles  triangular-cuneiform, 
obcordate,  compressed   laterally ;   valves  cariuate,  not  winged  on  the 
back ;    septum  sublinear ;  style  short ;    seeds  QO,  oblong,  small,  0||. — 
Fls.  white.     A  common  weed. 

C.  Buraa-pastoris  Msench.  SHEPHERD'S  PURSE. — Found  everywhere  in  fields 
and  pastures,  roadsides.  St.  6 — 8 — 12'  high,  nearly  smooth  in  the  upper  part, 
hirsute  below,  striate,  branching.  Root  Ivs.  rosulate,  2 — 5 — 8'  long,  \  as  wide, 
cut  lobed,  on  margined  petioles,  segm.  about  13.  These  leaves  are  sometimes 
wanting  (when  the  weed  is  crowded),  or  only  dentate.  Stem-lvs.  much  smaller, 
very  narrow,  with  2  small,  acute  auricles  at  base,  half  clasping  the  stem.  Fls. 
small,  in  racemes,  which  are  finally  3 — 12'  long.  Silicle  smooth,  triangular, 
emargmate  at  the  end,  and  tipped  with  the  style.  Apr. — Sept.  §  Eur. 

26.  LEPIDIUM,  R.  Br.     PEPPER  GRASS.     (Gr.  ASTT^,  a  scale ;  from 
the  resemblance  of  the  silicic.)     Sepals  ovate;  petals  ovate,  entire; 
silicles  oval-orbicular,  emarginate ;  septum  very  narrow,  contrary  to  the 
greater  diameter;  valves  carinate,  dehiscent;  cells  1-seeded.    Cotyledons 
0||  (in  No.  1,  0=).     Fls.  white,  small,  often  incomplete. 

-     *  Stamens  2  only.     Petals  4,  or  wanting Nos.  1,  2 

*  Stamens  6.     Silicles  winged , Nos.  3,  4 

1  I*.  Virginicum  L.  WILD  PEPPERGRASS.  TONGUE-GRASS.  Lvs.  linear-lanceo- 
late, incisely  serrate,  or  the  upper  subentire  petals  4 ;  silicles  orbicular,  emarginate ; 
cotyledons  0|. — (Din  dry  fields  and  roadsides,  U.  S.  St.  rigid,  round,  smooth,  If 


ORDER  13.— CRUCIFERJ3.  239 

high.  Lvs.  1 — 2'  by  1 — 3",  acute,  tapering  at  base  into  a  petiole,  upper  ones 
sessile,  lower  pinnatifidly  cut.  Fls.  and  silicles  very  numerous,  in  a  panicle  of 
racemes.  Fls.  very  small,  mostly  diandrous;  silicles  1£"  diam.,  with  a  notch  at 
the  end.  Taste  pungent,  like  that  of  the  garden  peppergrass.  Jn. — Oct. 

2  L.  ruderale  L.     Cauline  Ivs.,  incised,  those  of  the  branches  linear,  entire ;  fls- 
apetalous,  and  with  but  two  stamens ;  silicles  broadly  oval,  emarginate,  wingless.— 
Dry  fields,  Mich.,  Ind.,  Mo.     St.  10 — 15'  high,  diffiisedly  branched.     Rac.  many. 
Fls.  remarkable  for  wanting  the  petals,  which  are  always  present  in  our  other 
species. 

3  L.  campestre  R.  Br.    YELLOW-SEED.    Cauline  Ivs.  sagittate,  denticulate ;  silicles 
ovate,  emarginate,  scaly,  punctate. — ®  In  waste  places  and  dry  fields,  especially 
among  flax.     St.  strictly  erect,  round,  minutely  downy,  6 — 10'  high,  branching. 
Lvs.  1'  long,  \  as  wide,  with  two  lobes  at  base,  upper  one  clasping  the  stem,  all 
minutely  velvety.     Fls.  small     Silicles  1£"  long,  numerous,  in  long  racemes. 
Jn.,  Jl.    §  Eur. 

4  L.  sativum  L.   PEPPERGRASS.   Los.  variously  divided  and  cut]  branches  without 
spines ;  silicles  broadly  oval,  winged. — CD  Native  of  the  East.     Sts.  1 — 3f  high, 
very  branching.     Silicles  2 — 3"  broad,  very  numerous.     A  well  known  garden 
salad.     JL  $  § 

27.  SENEBIERA,  Poir.     CARPET  CRESS.     SWINE  CRESS.     (In  honor 
of  Scnebier,  a  distinguished  vegetable  physiologist.)     Silicle  didymous, 
with   the   partition   very  narrow ;   valves   ventricous,  separating  but 
indehiscent,  and  each  1-seeded,  cotyledons  incumbently  folded  on  them- 
selves.— (D  or  (D  Prostrate  and  diffuse,  with  minute  white  fls. 

1  S.  didyma  Pers.   Lvs.  pinnate,  with  pinnatiftd  segments;  silicles  rugously  reticu- 
lated, iiotched  at  the  apex. — Waste  places  and  waysides,  southern  States,  common. 
Sts.  spreading  circularly  like  the  carpet  weed  (Molugo),  flat  on  the  ground.     Lvs. 
1 — 3'  long,  oblong  in  outline,  its  lobes  obtuse,  and  cleft  mostly  on  the  upper 
margin.     Fls.  minute.     Silicles  very  small,  apparently  doubled,  rough-wrinkled. 
Feb. — Jn. 

2  S.  coronopus  DC.     Lvs.  pinnate,  with  the  segm.  entire,  toothed,  or  pinnatifid ; 
silicles  tuberckd,  not  notched  at  apex. — "Waste  grounds,  Va.  and  Car.  (Pursh),  R.  Isl. 
(Robbins).     Not  common.     §  Eur. 

28.  ISATIS,  L.     Wo  AD.     (Gr.  iodfa,  to  make  equal ;  supposed  to 

remove  roughness  from  the  skin.)  Silicle  elliptical,  flat,  1-celled  (dis- 
sepiment obliterated),  1-seeded,  with  carinate,  boat-shaped  valves,  which 
are  scarcely  dehiscent  (0||).  None  of  the  species  are  N.  American. 

I.  tinctoria  L.  Silicles  cuneate,  acuminate  at  base,  somewhat  spatulate  at  the 
end,  very  obtuse,  3  times  as  long  as  broad. — CD  The  Woad  is  native  of  England. 
It  is  occasionally  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  its  leaves,  which  yield  a  dye  that 
may  be  substituted  for  Indigo.  The  plant  grows  about  4f  high,  with  large 
leaves  clasping  the  stem  with  their  broad  bases.  Fls.  yellow,  large,  in  terminal 
racemes.  May — JL  \ 

29.  CAKILE,  Tourn.     SEA   EOCKET.     (Named  from  the  Arabic.) 
Silicle  2-jointed,  the  upper  part  ovate  or  ensiform ;  seed  in  the  upper 
cell  erect,  in   the  lower  pendulous,  sometimes  abortive. — ®  Maritime 
herbs. 

C.  maritima  Scop.  Upper  joint  of  the  silicle  ensiform  or  ovate-en siform. — Native 
of  the  seaeoast  and  lake  shores,  N.  States.  A  smooth,  succulent  plant,  branching 
and  procumbent,  6 — 12'  long.  Lvs.  sinuate-dentate,  oblong-endform,  caducous. 
Fls.  on  short,  fleshy  peduncles,  in  terminal  spikes  or  racemes,  corymbouslv 
arranged.  Petals  purple,  obtuse  at  end.  Silicle  smooth,  roundish,  lower  joint 
clavate-obovate,  upper  with  one  elevated  line  on  each  side.  JL,  Aug. 


240  ORDER  14.— CAPPARIDACEJE. 

30.  RAPHANUS,  L.  RADISH.  (Gr.  pa,  quickly,  ijxiivu,  to  appear; 
from  its  rapid  growth.)  Calyx  erect ;  petals  obovate,  unguiculate ; 
siliques  terete,  torulous,  not  opening  by  valves,  transversely  2-jointed, 
joints  with  one  or  several  cells,  seeds  large,  subglobous,  in  a  single 
series  (0»). 

1  R.  Raphanistrum  L.  WILD  RADISH.  Lvs.  lyrate ;  silique  moniliform, 
3— 8-seeded,  becoming  in  maturity  1-celled,  longer  than  the  styk.—®  Naturalized 
in  cultivated  fields  and  roadsides,  but  rare.  St.  glaucous,  branching,  1 — 2f  high, 
bristly.  Lvs.  rough,  dentate,  petiolate  or  sessile.  Cal.  bristly.  Petals  yellow, 
veiny,  blanching  as  they  decay.  Jn.,  Jl.  §  Eur. 

2  R.  sativa  L.  GARDEN  RADISH.  Lower  Ivs.  lyrate,  petiolate;  silique 
2 — 3-seeded,  acuminate,  scarcely  longer  than  the  style. — A  well  known  5-alad  root 
from  China.  St.  2 — 4f  high,  very  branching.  Lower  Ivs.  6 — 10'  long.  Fls. 
white,  or  tinged  with  purple,  veiny.  Pods  1 — 2'  long,  thick  and  fleshy.  The 
principal  varieties  are  the  Turnip  Radish,  root  subglobous ;  Common  Radish,  root 
oblong,  terete ;  Black  Spanish  Radish,  root  black  outside.  Jn. — Aug.  \ 

ORDER  XIV.     CAPPARIDACE^E.     CAPPARIDS. 

Herbs,  shrubs,  or  even  trees,  destitute  of  true  stipules.  Leaves  alternate,  petiolate, 
either  undivided  or  palmately  compound.  Fls.  solitary  or  racemous,  cruciform,  hy- 
pogynous.  Sep.  4,  Pet.  4,  unguiculate.  Sta.  G — 12,  or  some  multiple  of  4,  never 
tetradynamous,  on  a  disk  or  separated  from  the  corolla  by  an  interuode  of  the  torua 
Ova.  often  stipitate,  of  2  united  carpels.  Sty.  united  into  one.  Stig.  discoid.  Fr. 
either  pod-shaped  and  dehiscent,  or  fleshy  and  indehiacent.  Placenta  usually  2. 
Seeds  many,  renifonn.  Albumen  0.  Embryo  curved.  Cotykdon  foliaceous.  (Illust. 
in  Fig.  290.) 

Genera  28,  species  340— chiefly  tropical  plants.  They  are  more  acrid  in  their  properties  than 
the  Crucifers,  but  otherwise  much  resemble  them.  One  species  of  Polanisia  is  used  as  a  ver- 
mifuge. 

Stamens  6,  separated  from  the  petals  by  an  internode ..No.  1 

Stamens  6,  not  separated  from  the  petals No.  2 

Btamens  8 — 32.    Torus  not  developed No.  3 

1.  GYNANDROPSIS,  DC.     (Gynandria,  a  LinnaBan  class,  oipig  ap- 
pearance.)    Sepals  distinct,  spreading ;  stamens  6,  separated  from  the 
4  petals  by  a  slender  internode  of  the  torus ;  pod  linear-oblong,  raised 
on  a  long  stipe  which  rises  from  the  top  of  the  torus. — ®  Lvs.  digitate. 
Fls.  racemed. 

G-.  pentaphylla  DC.  Middle  Ivs.  petiolate,  5-foliate,  floral  and  lower  ones 
3-foliate,  Ifts.  obovate,  entire  or  denticulate. — In  cultivated  grounds,  Peun.  to  Ga. 
St.  simple,  2 — 3f  high.  Fls.  of  a  very  singular  structure.  Pedicels  about  1' 
long,  slender.  Calyx  small.  Petals  white,  £  as  long  as  their  filiform  claws. 
Sta.  1'  long,  spreading,  apparently  arising  from  the  midst  of  the  long  styloid 
torus.  Peds.  2'  long.  §  Africa.  (Cleome  L.) 

2.  CLEOME,  L.    SPICIER  FLOWER.    Sepals  sometimes  united  at  base ; 
petals  4 ;  torus  not  developed   between  the  petals  and  the  stamens, 
which  are  6 — 4 ;  pod  stipitate  more  or  less. — Herbs  or  shrubs.     Lvs. 
simple  or  digitate.     Fls.  racemed  or  solitary. 

1  C.  pungens  L.  Fig.  290.  Glandular  pubescent;  st  simple,  and  with  the 
petioles  aculeate;  Ivs.  5 — 9-foliate,  on  long  petioles,  Jfts.  elliptic-lanceolate,  acute 
at  each  end,  obscurely  denticulate;  bracts  simple;  fls.  racemed;  sep.  distinct; 
pet.  on  filiform  claws;  sta.  6,  twice  longer  than  the  petals. — ^  A  tall,  showy 


ORDER  16.—  VIOLACE^E.  241 

plant,  with  curious  purple  flowers,  common  in  gardens,  escaped  into  fields,  Ac. 
South.     May—  Aug.f   §  W.  Ind. 

2  C.  speciocissima  Deppe.-  Pilous  ;  st.  branching  below  ;  Ivs.  5  —  7  -foliate, 
on  long  petioles  ;  Ifts.  lanceolate,  acuminate,  the  upper  Ivs.  simple,  bract-like, 
ovate;  petals  as  long  as  the  pedicels;  fruit  shorter  than  its  stipe.  —  CD  Gardens. 
Plant  very  showy,  3  —  If  high.  Fls.  rose-purple,  clustered  at  the  summit  of  the 
rising  raceme  from  Jn.  to  Sept.  f  Mexico. 


3.  POL  AN  ISI  A,  Raf.    (Gr.  TroAv,  much,  dmoog,  unequal.)  Sepals  dis- 

tinct, spreading  ;  petals  4,  unequal  ;  stamens  8  —  32,  filaments  filiform 

or  dilated  at  the  summit  ;  torus  not  developed,  minute  ;  pods  linear.  — 

(p  Strong-scented  herbs,  with  glandular,  viscid  hairs. 

P.  graveolens    Raf.     Viscid-pubescent  ;    Ivs.  ternate,  Ifts.  elliptic-oblong  ;  fls. 

axillary,  solitary;  sta.  8  —  12;  caps,  oblong-lanceolate,  attenuate  at  base.  —  Grav- 

elly shores,  Vt.  to  Ark.     St.  If  high,  branching,  striate.    Lfts.  1—1^'  long,  £  as 

wide,  nearly  entire  and  sessile  ;  common  petiole  1'  long.     Fls.  in  terminal  racemes. 

Petals  yellowish-  white,  narrowed  below  into  long  claws.     Fil.  slender,  exserted. 

'   Pods  2'  long,  glandular-pubescent,  sUiquose,  viscid  like  every  other  part  of  the 

plant.     JL 

ORDER  XV.     RESEDACE^E.     MIGNONETTS. 

Herbs,  with  alternate,  entire,  or  pinnate  leaves.  Stipules  minute,  gland-like.  Fls. 
in  racemes  or  spikes,  small  and  often  fragrant,  4  —  7-merous.  Sepals  somewhat 
united  at  base,  unequal,  green.  Petals  unequal,  entire  or  cleft.  Sta.  8  —  20,  in- 
serted on  the  disk.  Torus  hypogynous,  one-sided,  glandular.  Ova.  sessile,  3-lobed, 
1-celled,  many-seeded.  Placenta  2,  parietal.  Fr.  a  capsule,  1-celled,  opening  be- 
tween the  stigmas  before  maturity.  (Illustrated  in  Figs.  295,  422.) 

Genera  6,  species  41,  inhabiting  the  countries  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  having  no  very 
remarkable  properties.  Reseda  luteola  contains  a  yellow  coloring  matter,  and  other  specie*  are 
•very  fragrant. 

RESEDA,  L.  (Lat.  resedo,  to  calm  ;  the  plants  are  said  to  relieve 
pain.)  Sepals  4  —  7;  petals  of  an  equal  number,  often  cleft;  torus 
large,  fleshy,  one-sided,  bearing  the  8  —  GO  stamens. 

1  R.  luteola  L.  DYER'S  WEED.  Lvs.  lanceolate,  with  a  tooth  on  each  side  at  base; 
sepals  4,  united  below  ;  petals  (greenish-yellow)  3  —  5-cleft.  —  (D  Nearly  natural- 
ized in  West.  N.  Y.  St.  about  2f  high.  The  flowers  are  arranged  in  a  long 
spike,  which,  as  Linnaeus  observes,  follows  the  course  of  the  sun,  inclining  east, 
south  and  west,  by  day,  and  north  by  night  —  It  affords  a  useful  yellow  dye,  also, 
the  paint  called  Dutch  pink.  §  Eur. 

2  R.  odorata  L.  MIGNONETTE.  Fig.  295,  422.  Lvs.  cuneiform,  entire  or 
3-lobed;  sep.  shorter  than  the  7  —  13-cleft  petals.  —  A  well  known  and  universal 
favorite  of  the  garden,  native  of  Egypt.  The  flowers  are  highly  fragrant  and  no 
bouquet  should  be  considered  complete  without  them.  The  variety  FRUTESCEXS  is 
by  a  peculiar  training  "(£S7)  made  perennial  and  raised  to  the  height  of  2fj 
with  the  form  of  a  tree.  The  species  phyteuma,  native  of  Palestine,  has  a  calyx 
larger  than  the  petals. 

ORDER  XVI.     VTOLACE^E.     VIOLETS. 

Herbs  with  simple  (often  cleft)  alternate  leaves  with  stipules.  .FT-?,  irregular, 
spurred,  with  the  sepals,  petals  and  stamens  in  5s.  Sep.  persistent,  slightly  united, 
elongated  at  base,  the  2  lateral  interior.  Petals  commonly  unequal,  the  inferior 
usually  spurred  at  base.  Sta.  5,  usually  inserted  on  the  hypx>gynous  disk.  FiL 
dilated,  prolonged  beyond  the  anthers.  Ova.  of  3  united  carpels,  with  3  parietal 

16 


242  ORDER  16.— VIOLACELE. 

placentae.  Style  1,  declinate.  Stig.  cucullate.  Fr.  a  3-valved  capsule.  Sds.  many, 
with  a  crustaceous  testa  and  distinct  chalaza,  (Illustrations  in  Figs.  101,  305,  348, 
402,  604.) 

Genera  15,  species  300,  mostly  inhabitants  of  the  Northern  temperate  zone.  The  roots  of 
almost  all  the  Violaceae  possess  emetic  properties,  and  some  are  valued  in  medicine.  The  Ipecac 
of  the  shop  is  partly  the  product  of  certain  Brazilian  species  of  lonidium.  Several  species  of 
the  violet  are  cultivated  for  the  beauty  of  their  flowers. 

§  Sepals  unequal,  more  or  less  auricled  at  base ' VIOLA..    1. 

§  Sepals  nearly  equal,  not  auricled  at  base SOLEA.    2. 

1.  VlOLA,  L.  VIOLET.  PANSEY.  (From  the  Latin.)  Sepals  5,  unequal, 
auricular  at  base ;  petals  5,  irregular,  the  broadest  spurred  at  base,  the 
2  lateral  equal,  opposite ;  stamens  approximate,  anthers  connate,  two  of 
them  with  appendages  at  the  back ;  capsule  1-celled,  3-valved,  seeds 
attached  to  the  middle  of  the  valves. —  if  Low,  herbaceous  plants. 
Ped.  angular,  solitary,  1 -flowered,  recurved  at  the  summit  so  as  to  bear 
the  flowers  in  a  resupinate  position.  Joints  of  the  rhizome  often  bear- 
ing apetalous  flowers. 

*  Acaulescent — Petals  yellow , , , No.  1. 

—Petals  white Nos.  2 — 1 

—Petals  blue,— beardless Nos.  6—7. 

—bearded.— Lvs.  divided Nos.  8,  9/3,  9y. 

— Lvs.  undivided Nos.  9—11.    (Exotic  No.  21.) 

*  Caulescent.— Petals  yellow.    Sts.  leafy  at  the  top  only Nos.  12—14. 

—Petals  not  quite  yellow.— Stipules  entire Nos.  15. 

—Stipules  fringe-toothed Nos.  16—18. 

— Stipules  lyrate-pinnatifid,  very  large... Nos.  19,  20. 

1  V.  rotundifolia  MX.     Fig.  305.     Lvs.  orbicular-ovate,  cordate,  slightly  ser- 
rate, nearly  smooth,  with  the  sinus  closed ;  petiole  pubescent ;  cal.  obtuse. — A 
small,  early  violet,  found  in  woods,  N.  Eng.  to  Tenn.     Lvs.  varying  from  ovate  to 
reniform,  mostly  round,  with  a  narrow  sinus  at  base.     Veins  and  petioles  pubes- 
cent.    Ped.  as  long  as  the  leaves,  sub-4-sided,  bracted  in  the  middle.     Petals  yel- 
low, marked  at  base  with  brown  lines.     Ms.  small.     Mar.,  May. 

2  V.  lanceolata  L.     Lvs.  smooth,  lanceolate,  tapering  at  base  into  the  long  petiole 
obtusish,  subcrenate. — Pound  in  wet  meadows,  Can.  and  U.  S.     Rhizome  creep- 
ing.    Lvs.  varying  from  lanceolate  to  linear,  and,  with  the  stalk  3 — 5'  long. 
Petioles  half-round.     Ped.  sub-4-sided.     Petals  white,  greenish  at  base,  upper  and 
lateral  ones  marked  with  blue  lines,  generally  beardless.     Fls.  small,  those  from 
the  lower  nodes  of  the  rhizome  apetalous.     Mar.  (S) — May. 

3  V.  primulcefolia  L.     Lvs.  lance-ovate,  abrupoly  contracted  at  "base  and  decur- 
rent  on  the  petiole ;  petals  nearly  equal,  beardless. — Found  in  damp  soils,  Mass, 
to  Ga.  and  Tenn.     Rhizome  creeping.     Lvs.  sometimes  subcordate,  rather  obtuse, 
crenate,  pubescent  or  nearly  smooth.     Petals  obovate,  flat,  marked  with  purple 
lines  at  base,  generally  beardless  and  obtuse.     Fls.  small,  white,  on  sub-4-sided 
stalks.     May,  in  N.  Eng. 

/3.  ACUTA  Torr.  &  Gr. — Smooth ;  Ivs.   ovate ;  petals  acute,  lateral  ones  nearly 
beardless.     Mass.    (V.  acuta  Br.) 

4  V.  blanda  Willd.     Lvs.  cordate,  roundish,  slightly  pubescent;  petiole  pubes- 
cent ;  petals  beardless. — Found  in  meadows,  Can.  to  Penn.     Rhizome  slender  and 
creeping.     Lvs.  close  to  the  earth  and  sometimes  with  a  rounded  sinus  so  as  to 
appear  reniform.     Petioles  half  round.     Peduncles  sub-4-sided,   longer  than  the 
leaves.     Petals  white,  greenish  at  base,  upper  and  lateral  ones  marked  with  a  few 
blue  lines.     Fls.  small,  fragrant.     May  (V.  clandestina  Ph.  V.  amcena  Le  Conte). 

5  V.  palustris   L.     Lvs.  reniform-cordate ;  stip.  broadly  ovate,  acuminate;  stig. 
margined;   sop.  ovate,  obtuse,  spur  very  short;  caps,  oblong- triangular. — Summits 
of  the  White  Mts.     About  3'  high,  pubescent.     Lvs.  crenate,  1'byf.     Fls.  small, 
pale  blue  on  peduncles  longer  than  the  leaves  and  bibracteate  near  the  middle. 
Rhizome  creeping,  scaly.     Jn. 

6  V.  Selkirkii  Goldie.     SELKIRK'S  YIOLET.     Lvs.  orbicular-cordate,  crenately  ser- 
rate, the  sinus  deep  and  nearly  closed ;  spur  nearly  as  long  as  the  petals,  thick 


OBDEE  16.— VIOLACE^}.  243 

very  obtuse. — Grows  on  woody  hills  and  mountains,  Mass.,  N.  Y.,  Can.,  rare.  A 
small,  stemless  violet  2'  high,  with  small,  pale  blue  fls.  conspicuously  spurred. 
Lvs.  rather  numerous  and  longer  than  the  peduncles.  Petals  beardless,  the  upper 
one  striate  with  deep  blue.  May. 

7  V.  pedata  L.     Et.  premorse;  Ivs.  pedately  5 — ^-parted,   segments  linear-lance- 
olate, entire ;  stig.  large,  obtusely  truncate,  scarcely  beaked ;  spur  short,  obtuse. — 
A  smooth,  beautiful,  large-flowered  violet,  in  hilly  woods,  Can.  to  111.  and  Fla. 
Rhizome  fleshy,  ending  abruptly  as  if  cut  or  bitten  off.     Lvs,  thick,  2-ternately 
divided  into  about  7  obtuse,  narrow  segments.     Petioles  with  long,  ciliate  stipules 
at  base.     Ped.  sub-4-angled,  much  longer  than  the  leaves.     Petals  pale  blue, 
white  at  base,  all  of  them  beardless  and  entire.     Apr.,  May. 

j3.  The  two  upper  petals  deep  violet  colored,  the  others  light-blue  with  much 
yellow  at  their  bases,  as  in  the  garden  pansey.  Plants  smaller,  with  large 
flowers. — In  Mt.  Hope  Cemetery,  Macon,  Ga. 

8  V.  delphinifolia  Nutt.     Lvs.  pedately  7 — ^-parted,  with  linear.  2 — 3-ckft  seg- 
ments aU  similar  ;  stig.  thick,  distinctly  beaked. — Prairies  and  bottoms,  111.,  Iowa, 
Mo.     Lvs.  often  finely  divided  with  many  dissected  segments,   pubescent  along 
the  edge,  prominently  veined  beneath.     Stip.  acuminate,  subentire.     Ped.  a  little 
longer  than  the  leaves.    Fls.  rather  smaller  than  hi  the  last,  of  a  rich  blue ;  lateral 
petals  bearded.     Mar.,  Apr. 

9  V.  cuculiata  Ait.     Lvs.  renifonn-cordate,  cucuUate  at  base,  acute,  crenate ;  stip. 
linear;  inferior  and  lateral  petals  bearded. — This  is  one  of  the  more  common 
kinds  of  violet,  found  in  low,  grassy  woods  from  Arctic  Am.  to  Fla.     Lvs.  on  long 
petioles,  usually  rolled  at  base  into  a  hooded  form.     Fls.  light  blue  or  purple,  with 
scapes  somewhat  4-sided,  longer  than  the  leaves.     Petals  twisted,  white  at  the 
base,  marked  with  lines  of  deeper  blue.     Apr.,  May.     This  species   varies  from 
pubescent  t<*  glabrous,  from  Ivs.  reniform  to  ovate,  deltoid,  or  hastate  ;  from  fls, 
deep  blue  to  light-blue  or  even  white,  and  as  is  now  generally  conceded,  to  the 
following  remarkable  forms : — 

/?.  PALMATA.  Lvs.  (cordate)  all  or  some  of  them  very  irregularly  hastate-lobed, 
the  middle  lobe  largest,  the  earlier  Ivs.  commonly  undivided  and  broadly  cor- 
date. Fls.  large.  Plant  4—12'  high..  (V.  palmata  L.)— Common  at  the 
South.  , 

y.  SEPTEMLOBA.  Lvs.  (concave  at  base)  more  deeply  5 — 7-lobed,  the  middle 
lobe  largest,  oblanceolate,  all  rather  succulent  and  strongly  veined  beneath  ; 
fls.  very  large.  (V.  septemloba  Le  Conte.) — Low,  pine  woods,  Ga.  (Pond). 
Plant  5 — 12'  high.  A  remarkable  form  truly,  but  evidently  varying  into  /?. 
Apr. 

10  V.  villosa  "Walt.     Lvs.  roundish-ovate,  cordate,  obtuse,  flat,  pubescent,  obscurely 
crenate,  sinus  narrow  or  closed;  pet.  bearded;  stig.  beaked. — Sandy  woods,  mid- 
dle Ga.,  common  N.  to  Perm.     Plant  2 — 3'  high.     Lvs.  spreading,  scarcely  1'  long, 
the  petioles  longer  (1 — 2 ).     Fls.  small,  bluish  purple,  on  stalks  shorter  than  the 
leaves.     Mar.,  Apr. 

11  V.  sagittata  Ait.     Lvs.  oblong-lanceolate,  sagittate-cordate,  subacute,  often  in- 
cisely  dentate  at  base,  serrate-crenate,   smooth  or  slightly   pubescent;    pedicel 
longer  than  the  leaves ;  lower  and  lateral  pet.  densely  bearded. — On  dry  hills, 
Can.  to  Fla.,  W.  to  Ark.     Lvs.  varying  from  oblong-sagittate  to  triangular-hastate, 
on  margined  petioles.     Scapes  3  to  5'  long.     Sep.  lanceolate,  acute.     Pet  entire, 
veiny,  purplish  blue,  white  at  base.     Stig.  rostrate,  margined.     Apr. — Jn. 

/3.  OVATA.  Lvs.  ovate,  abrupt  at  base  and  decurrent  on  the  petioles,  pubescent, 
the  upper  often  incisely  dentate  at  base.  (Y.  ovata  Nutt.) — N.  J.,  south- 
ward. 

12  V.  hastata  MX.     Smooth ;  st.  simple,  erect,  leafy  above ;  Ivs.  deltoid-lanceolate 
or  hastate,  acute,  dentate  ;  stip.  ovate,  minute,  ciliate-dentate ;   lower  pet.  dilated, 
obscurely  3-lobed,   lateral  ones  slightly  bearded;    sep.   lanceolate,  with  a  very 
short  spur. — Pine  woods,  Tenn.  to  Fla.     St.  slender,  6 — 10'  high.     Fls.  yellow,  on 
stalks  shorter  than  the  leaves.     Apr.,  May. 

13  V.  tripartita  Ell.     Hairy.    St.  simple,  erect,  leafy  above;  Ivs.  deeply  3-parted, 
lobes  lanceolate,  dentate ;  stip.  lanceolate. — Upper  Ga.     Plant  about  If  high,  vil- 


244  ORDER  16.— -VIOLACE^J. 

loua  when  young.     Lvs.  often  divided  to  the  base.     Fls.  yellow,  streaked  with 
purple,  the  stalks  longer  than  the  leaves.     Mar.,  Apr. 

14  V.  pubescens  Ait.      Villous-pubescent ;   st.  erect,  naked  below ;   Ivs.  broad- 
cordate,  toothed ;  slip,  ovate,  large,  subdentate. — A  large  yellow  violet,  found  in 
dry  stony  woods,  Can.  to  Ga.  and  Mo.     St.  simple,  somewhat  triangular  and 
fleshy,  bearing  a  few  leaves  at  the  top.     Lvs.  broad-ovate,  cordate  or  deltoid,  ob- 
scurely dentate,  obtuse,   on  short  stalks.     Fl.-stalks  rather  shorter  than  leaves, 
with  2  subulate  bracts.     Lateral  petals  bearded,  and  with  the  upper  one  marked 
with  a  few  brown  lines.     The  plant  varies  in  pubescence,  sometimes  even  glab- 
rous.    Height  very  variable,  5 — 20'.     May — Jn. 

/?.  ERIOCARPA  Nutt.     Capsule  densely  villous.     (V.  eriocarpa  Schw.) 
y.  SCABRIUSCULA  Torr.  &  Gr.     St.  decumbent,  branching  from  the  root,  and 
with  the  smaller  leaves  somewhat  scabrous.     (V.  scabriuscula  Schw.) 

15  V.  Canadensis  L.     Smooth ;  Ivs.  cordate,  acuminate,  serrate ;  ped.  shorter 
than  the  leaves  ;  stip.  short,  entire. — A  largo  species,  found  in  the  woods,  British 
Am.  to  Car.,  often  a  foot  in  hight.      Stem  subsimple,  terete,  all  the  way  leafy, 
with  lance-ovate,  membranous  stipules.     Lvs.  acute  or  obtuse,  the  lower  on  very 
long  p?tioles.     Fed.  sub-4-sided,  with  minute  bracts. ;    Fls.  large,  nearly  regular. 
Pet.  white  or  light  blue,  yellowish  at  base,  the  upper  ones  purplish  outsido 
and  marked  with  blue  lines  inside,  lateral  ones  bearded.      Flowering  all  sum- 
mer. 

16  V.  striata  Ait.     Smooth;  st.  branching,  nearly  erect;  Ivs.  roundish-ovate, 
cordate,  the  uppar  ones  somewhat  acuminate,  crenate-serrato ;  stip.  large,  ciliate- 
dentate,  oblong-lanceolate ;  spur  one  fourth  as  long  as  the  corolla. — Wet  grounds, 
TJ.  S.  and  Can.      St.  6 — 12'  high,  half  round.      Lvs.    1 — 1^'  wide,  on  petioles 
1 — 2'  long.     Stip.  conspicuous,  laciniate.     Ped.  axillary,  often  much  longer  than 
the  leaves.      Cor.  large,  yellowish-white  or  ochroleucou*,  lateral  petals  densely 
bearded,  lower  one  striate  with  dark  purple.     Stig.  tubular.     Jn. 

17  V.  Muhlenbergii  Torr.     St.  weak,  assurgent ;  Ivs.  reniform-cordate,  upper 
ones  rather  acuminate;  stip.  lanceolate,  somewhat  fimbriate;  spur  half  as  long  as 
the  corolla,  obtuse. — A  spreading,   slender  species,  in  swamps,  &c.,  TJ.  S.,  N.  to 
Lab.     Sts.  branched  below,  6 — 8'  long,  with  stipules  usually  cut  into  fringe-liko 
serratures.     Lvs.  6 — 10"  diam.,  younger  ones  involute  at  base.     Petioles  longer 
than  the  leaves,  and  shorter  than  the  axillary  peduncles.    Bracts  subulate,  mostly 
opposite,  on  the  upper  part  of  the  stalk.      Petals  entire,  pale  purple,  the  lateral 
ones  bearded.     Stig.  rostrate.     May. 

18  V.  rostrata  L.    Smooth;   st.  terete,  diffuse,  erect;  Ivs.  cordate,  roundish,  ser- 
rate, upper  ones  acute;  stip.  lanceolate,  deeply  fringed;    petals   bearded;  spur 
longer   than   the  corolla. — A  common  violet  in  moist  woods,  Can.  to  Ky.,  well 
characterized  by  its  long,  straight,  linear,  obtuse  nectary,  which  renders  the  large 
flowers   similar  to   those  of  the  larkspur.      St.    6 — 8'  high,  branching  below. 
Petiolos  much  longer  than  the  leaves.      Stip.  almost  pinnatifid.      Ped.  slender, 
very  long,  axillary.     Fis.  pale  blue.     May. 

19  V.  tricolor  L.     PANSEY,  HEARTSEASE.     St.  angular,  diffusely  branched;  Ivs. 
oblong-ovate,   lower  ones  ovate-cordate,  deeply  crenato;  stip.    as  large  as  the 
leaves ;  spur  short,  thick. — Gardens,  where-  its  pretty  flowers  are  earliest  in  spring 
and  latest  in  autumn.      Fls.  variable  in  size,  often  1'  broad,  the  2  upper  (lower) 
petals  purple,  the  two  lateral  white  and  with  the  lower  striate,  all  yellow  at  base. 

P.  ARVENSIS  DC.  Annual.  More  slender  and  less  branched ;  upper  Ivs.  ovate- 
spatulate;  petals  scarcely  twice  longer  than  the  calyx,  yellowish  blue, 
spotted  with  purple.  (V.  arvcnsis  Ell.) — This  is,  doubtless,  a  mere  variety 
escaped  from  gardens,  in  rocky  hills,  N.  Y.  to  Ga.  Not  common.  Sts. 
3 — 6 — 10'  long.  May. 

20  V.  grandiflora  L.  St.  3-comered,  simple,  procumbent;  Ivs.  ovate-oblong, 
crenate,  shorter  than  the  peduncles;  stip.  much  smaller  than  the  leaves ;  fls.  large.- — 
Native  of  Switzerland.  A  beautiful  species,  with  very  large  flowers  (1 — 2'  diam.); 
all  the  petals  alike  are  deep  purple.  Whole  plant  smooth,  6 — 12'  long.  Stip. 
\ — 1'  long.  Flowering  all  seasons  but  winter,  f 

21V.  odorata  L.  SWEET,  OR  ENGLISH  VIOLET.  Stolons  creeping ;  Ivs.  cor- 
date, crenate,  nearly  smooth;  sep.  obtuse;  lateral  petals  with  a  hairy  line. — Native 


ORDER  17. — CISTAOB^E.  245 

of  England.  It  is  well  characterized  by  its  long,  trailing,  leafy  runners.  The  Ivs. 
are  truly  heart-shaped.  Stip.  lanceolate,  toothed.  Fed.  longer  than  the  leaves, 
bracted.*  Fls.  small,  fragrant.  Several  garden  varieties  are  known,  and  distin- 
guished by  the  form  and  color  of  the  flowers;  viz: — the  purple,  white  and  blue- 
flowered,  the  double  white,  double  purple  and  double  blue-flowered,  and  the 
Neapolitan  with  pale  blue  flowers.  Apr.,  May.f 

2.  SOLEA,  Gingins.     GREEN  VIOLET.     (Dedicated  to  W.   Sole,  an. 
English  writer  on  plants.)     Sepals  nearly  equal,  not  auriculate  ;  petals 
unequal,  the  lowest  2-lobed  and  gibbous  at  base,  the  rest  emarginate  ; 
stamens  cohering,  the  lowest  2   bearing  a  gland  above  the  middle ; 
capsule  surrounded  at  base  by  the   concave  torus;  seeds  6 — 8,  very 
large. —  U  An  erect,  leafy  plant,  with  inconspicuous  axillary  flowers. 
S.  concolor  Gingins.    GREEX  VIOLET.    Woods,  "Western  N.  Y.  to  Mo.,  and  S.  to 

Car.      Stem  1 — 2f  high,  simple,  and,  with  the  leaves,   somewhat  hairy.      Lvs. 

4 — 6'  by  1^ — 2^',  lanceolate,   acuminate,   subentire,  tapering  to  short  petioles. 

Ped.  very  short,  1 — 5-flowered,  axillary.    Fls.  small,  greenish,  white.    Cal.  about 

as  long  as  the  corolla     Lower  petal  twice  larger  than  the  others.     Capsule  near 

1'  in  length.     Apr.,  May. 

ORDER  XVII.     CISTACEJE.     ROCK  ROSES. 

Herbs  or  low  shrubs  with  simple,  entire,  opposite  (at  least  the  lower)  leaves,  with 
fls.  perfect,  regular,  hypogynous,  in  one-sided  racemes,  very  fugacious.  Sep.  5,  un- 
equal, persistent.  Petals  5  (sometimes  3  or  wanting)  convolute  in  aestivation.  Sta. 
mostly  oo.  Caps.  1-celled,  3 — 5-valved,  with  as  many  parietal  placenta.  Seeds 
albuminous.  Embryo  curved  or  spiral.  (Illust.  in  Fig.  404.) 

Genera  7,  species  1S5,  most  abundant  in  S.  Europe  and  N.  Africa. 

GENERA. 

T  Petals  3,  linear-lanceolate,  small LECHEA.  1 

T  Petals  5, — large  and  showy,  or  wanting HELIAXTIIKMUM.  2 

— minute.    Delicate  shrubs. HUDSOXIA.  3 

1.  LECHEA,  L.  PINWEED.  (In  memory  of  John  Leche,  a  Swedish 
botanist.)  Sepals,  5,  the  2  outer  minute ;  petals  3,  lanceolate,  small ; 
stamens  3  to  12  ;  stigmas  3,  scarcely  distinct ;  capsule  3-celled,  3-valved  ; 
placentae  nearly  as  broad  as  the  valves,  roundish,  each  1 — 2 -seeded. — 
U  Often  shrubby  at  base,  with  numerous  very  small  brownish  purple 
flowers. 

1  L.  major  MX.     Hairy;   Ivs.  elliptical,  mucronulate  ;  fls.  minute,  about  as  long 
as  the  pedicels. — In  dry  woods,  U.  S.  and  Can.      St.  1 — 2f  high,  rigid,  brittle 
hairy,   purple,   somewhat  corymbously  branched.      Lvs.   of  the  stem  about  4" 
long,  alternate,  opposite,  r>r  even  verticillate  on  the  prostrate  branches,  crowded. 
Fls.  brownish-purple,  inconspicuous  among  the  numerous  bracts.     Caps,  round- 
ish, about  the  size  of  a  small  pin-head.     Variable.     Jl.,  Aug. 

2  L.  minor  Lam.     Smoothish;  Ivs.  linear,  very  acute;  fls.  small,  on  pedicel  which 
are  mostly  twice  longer. — Grows  in  dry,  sandy  grounds,  U.  S.  and  Can.     Sta. 
8 — 16'  high,  slenaer,  red,  paniculately  branched,  often  decumbent  at  base.     Stem 
Ivs.  6 — 10"  by  1",  alternate,  re  volute  at  the  margin,  those  of  the  divergent,  fili- 
form branches  gradually  minute.     Fls.  twice  as  largo  as  in  L.  major.     Petals 
brownish-purple,  cohering  at  apex.    Caps,  the  size  of  a  large  pin-head.    Jn. — Sept 

3  L.  thymifolia  Ph.     Shrubby t  hoary  with  appressed  hairs ;  Ivs.  linear  and  linear- 
oblanceolatc,   rather  acute,   often  vert icillate ;  fls.  small,  on  pedicels  still  shorter. — 
Seacoasts,  Mass  to  N.  J.     Sts.  about  If  high,  many  from  the  same  caudcx,  rigid 
and  very  bushy.     Lvs.   6 — 10"  long,   erect,  crowded.     Fls.  in  terminal,   dense 
cymules,  on  very  short  pedicels.     Petals  brown.     Caps,  globoua.     Jl. — Sept. 


246  ORDER  18.— HYPERICACEJE. 

2.  HELlANTHEMUM,  L.     ROCK  ROSE.     (Gr.  flfco?,  the  sun,  avOos, 
flower.)     Sepals  5,  the  2  outer,  smaller,  the  3  inner  convolute  ;  petals  5, 
or  rarely  3,  convolute  contrary  to  the  sepals,  sometimes  abortive ;  stam- 
ens oo ;  stigmas  3,  scarcely  distinct ;  capsule  triangular,  3-valved,  open- 
ing at  top ;  seeds  angular. — FJs.  yellow  often  of  2  kinds,  the  later  being 
smaller  and  apetalous. 

'l  H.  Canadenae  MX.  FROST  PLANT.  Hoary  pubescent ;  petaliferous  fls.  solitary, 
pedicellate,  terminal,  apetalous  ones  axillary,  small,  clustered,  subsessik;  cal.  acute; 
Ivs.  rovolute  on  the  margin,  lanceolate,  acute. — In  dry  fields  and  woods,  Can.  to 
Flor.  St.  8 — 12'  high,  at  length  shrubby  at  base.  Lvs.  8 — 12"  long,  \  as  wide, 
entire,  subsessile.  Primary  fls.  with  largo  bright  yellow  petals.  The  axillary  fls. 
later,  very  small,  with  very  small  petals,  or  apetalous.  Sta.  declinate.  Caps, 
smooth,  shining,  those  of  the  apetalous  fls.  not  larger  than  a  pin's  head.  Sds.  few, 
brown.  May — Sept. 

0.   OBTUSA.     Hoary  tomentous;    Ivs.  oblong,  obtuse;    fls.  (all  petaliferous?) 

smaller  (7"  broad),  several,   terminal. — Middle  Flor.     St.  3 — 6'  high.     Lvs. 

about  9"  by  2''.    Apr.     It  may  prove  distinct. 

2  H.  corymbosum  MX.     Canescently  tomentous;  fls.  in  crowded,  fastigiate  cymes, 
the  primary  ones  on  elongated,  filiform  pedicels,  and  with  petals  twice  longer  than 
the  calyx ;  sep.  villous  canescent,  obtuse ;  Ivs.  oblong-lanceolate,  margins  revolute. — 
Sterile  sands,  N.  J.,  to  Fla.      Plant  somewhat  shrubby,  very  tomentous  when 
young,  at  length  diffusely  branched,  about  If  high.     Primary  fls.  7  or  8"  diam. ; 
secondary  ones  apetalous,  subsessile.     Jn. — Aug.     (Heteromeris  cymosa  Spach. ) 

3  H.  Carolinianum  MX.      Villous,  simple,  erect;  fls.  all  large,  petaliferous  and 
subterminal;  sepals  acuminate;  Ivs.  oblong-oval,  edges  denticulate,   not  revolute. — 
Dry  woods,  S.  Car.  to  Fla.  and  La.,  common.     St.  rarely  branched  from  the  base, 
brownish,  8 — 12'  high.     Lvs.  distinctly  petioled,  1 — 2£'  long,  £  as  wide,  obtuse 
or  acute,  black-dotted  beneath.     Fls.  1  to  4,  more  than  1'  broad,  the  pedicels 
supra-axillary.     Apr.,  May. 

3.  HUDSONIA,  L.     (In  honor  of  William  Hudson,  author  of  Flora 
Anglica.)     Sepals  3,  united  at  base,  subtended  by  2   minute   ones  out- 
side ;  petals  5  ;  stamens  9—30  ;  style  filiform,  straight ;  capsule,  1 -ceiled, 
3-valved,  many-seeded. — Low  shrubs  with  very  numerous  branches,  and 
minute,  cxstipulate  leaves. 

1  H.  tomentosa  Nutt.     Hoary-tomentous ;  Ivs.  ovate,  appressed-imbricate,  acute ; 
fls.  subsessile ;  sep.  obtuse. — Shores  of  the  ocean  and  lakes,  Me.  to  N.  J.  and  Wis. 
Plant  consisting  of  numerous  slender,  ascending  stems  from  the  same  root,  and  a 
multitude  of  tufted  branches,  all  covered  with  whitish  down.     Lvs.  less  than  1'' 
in  length,  closely  appressed  to  the  stem.     Fls.  about  2''  broad,  yellow,  numerous. 
May. 

2  H.  ericoides  L.     Hoary-pubescent;  Ivs.  subulate,  a  little  spreading;  pedicels  ex- 
serted,  as  long  as  the  calyx ;  sep.  acutish. — A  very  delicate  shrub.     L.  Champlain, 
Vt,   Couway  Pond,   N.   H.   to  Va.,  along  the  coasts.     St.  £f  high,  erect,  with 
numerous,  short,  compound,  procumbent  branches.     Lvs.  not  more  than  1'  long. 
Fls.  yellow,  about  3"  broad.     Caps,  oblong,  pubescent.     May. 

3  H.  montana  Nutt.     Minutely  pubescent ;  Ivs.  filiform-subulate ;  pedicels  longer 
than  the  flowers ;  sep.  acuminate,  the  outer  ones  longer,  subulate. — High  Mts.  of 
N.  Car.     Sts.   decumbent,    3 — 5'  high.     Lvs.   partly  imbricated,  2"  long.     Fls. 
about  5"  broad,  the  pedicels  when  in  fruit  1'  long.     Caps,  about  3-seeded. 

ORDER  XVIII.     HYPERICACE^E.     ST.  JOHN'S  WORTS. 

Herbs  or  shrubs  with  opposite,  entire,  dotted,  exstipulate  leaves,  with  flowers  per- 
fect, regular,  hypogynous,  4  or  5-merous,  cymous  and  mostly  yellow ;  sepals  unequal, 


ORDER  18.— HYPERICACE^E.  247 

persistent ;  petals  mostly  oblique  or  convolute  in  the  bud ;  stamens  few  or  man j, 
polyadelphous ;  anthers  versatile  ;  ovary  compound,  with  styles  united  or  separate, 
becoming  in  fruit  a  1-celled  capsule  with  parietal  placentas,  or  3  to  5-celled  when 
the  dissepiments  reach/ the  center.  Seeds  exalbuminous,  minute.  (Illustrations  in 
Fig.  69,  278,  389,  390.) 

Genera  15,  species  276,  very  generally  distributed,  presenting  a  great  variety  of  habit,  and 
flourishing  in  all  kinds  of  localities.  The  juice  of  many  species  is  considered  purgative  and 
febrifugal. 

GENERA. 

Sepals  4.     Petals  4,  oblique,  yellow ASOTEUM      1 

Sepals  5.    Petals  5, — oblique,  yellow HYPERICUM  2 

— equilateral,  purplish ELODKA       3 

1.  ASCtRUM,  L.    ST.  PETER'S  WORT.    (Etymology  uncertain.)    Sep- 
als 4,  the  two  outer  usually  very  large  and  foliaceous;  petals.  4,  oblique, 
convolute  ;  filaments  slightly  united  at  base  into  several  parcels  ;  styles 
2 — 4,    mostly  distinct ;  capsule    1-celled. — Plants    suffruticous.      Lvs. 
punctate  with  black  dots.     Fls.  pale  yellow   1  or  3  terminating  each 
branch.     Pedicels  bibracteolate. 

The  outer  pair  of  sepals — very  large,  ovate.    Styles  1  or  2 '. Nos.  1,  2 

— still  larger,  orbicular. "  Styles  3 Nos.  3,  4 

— small,  like  the  two  inner.     Styles  3 No.  5 

1  A.  Crux-Andreae  L.      ST.  ANDREW'S  CROSS.    Branches  many,  suberect,  an- 
cipital  above;  Ivs.  linear-oblong,  obtuse;  outer  sep.  twice  longer  than  the  pedicel;  2 
bracteoles  a  little  below  the  flower. — Sandy  woods,  N.  J.  to  Ga.  and  La.     Sts.  1  to 
2f  high,  with  brown,   scaly  bark  below.     Lvs.  6  to  12"  long,  minutely  dotted, 
sessile,  smaller  ones  axillary.     Cymes  leafy.     The  persistent,  ovate  sepals  close 
after  flowering.     Jn.,  Jl. 

(3  ANGUSTIFOLIA  Nutt.  Lvs.  oblong-linear,  crowded;  outer  sepals  acute,  the 
two  bracteoles  close  to  the  flower. — Car,  and  Ga.  (Feay.)  Looks  very  differ- 
ent from  a,  from  the  smallness  of  its  numerous  Ivs.,  which  are  3  to  6"  long, 
1'  wide. 

2  A.  pximihim  MX.     Low,  trailing  at  base ;  Ivs.  oval  and  obovate,  obtuse,  sessile  • 
outer  sepals  shorter  than  the  slender  pedicel,  inner  sepal  0  ;  bracteoles  0. — Ga.  and 
Fla.,  in  dry,  piny  barrens.     Much  branched,  branches  a  few  inches  long.     Lvs. 
about  3"  by  2,"  often  smaller.      Cymes  exserted,   the  pedicels  6  to  10"  long. 
Pet.  rather  larger  than  the  sepals. 

3  A.  stans  MX.     St.  erect,  ancipital ;  Ivs.  oblong,  sessile,  and  half-clasping,  obtuse ; 
caps,  ovate,  acute. — Swamps  in  pine  barrens,  N.  J.  to  Fla.  and  La.     Sts.  1  to  3f 
high,  straight,  winged  throughout,  branched  above,  usually  simple  at  base  and 
shaggy  with  loose  bark.    Lvs.  10  to  15"  long,  £  as  wide.    Outer  sepals  orbicular, 
subcordate,  6"  diam.,   inner  lance-linear.     Petals  unequal,  ovate,  acute,  a  little 
longer  than  the  sepals.     Sty.  3-,  distinct,  short.     Jn. — Aug. 

4  A.  amplexicaule  ^Ix.     St.  erect,  terete  below ;  Ivs.   broadly  ovate,  cordate, 
clasping;  caps,  oblong. — Ga.  and  Fla.     Sts.  1  to  2f  high,  dichotonously  branched 
above,  branches  somewhat  2-edged.     Lvs.  8  to  12"  long,  §  as  broad.     Outer 
sepals  nearly  round,  5''  broad,  the  petals  J  longer. 

5  A.  microsepaltim  Torr.  and  Gr.     Bushy ;  st.  scarcely  edged ;  Ivs.  oblong  and 
oblong-linear,   crowded ;  sep.  oblong-linear,  much  shorter  than  the  obovato,  un- 
equal petals ;  sty.  3,  long,  distinct — Ga.  and  Fla.     Very  different  in  aspect  from 
the  others,  with  crooked,  straggling  stems.     Lvs.   2  to  4"  long,  1"  wide  (in  a 
variety  twice  as  large).     Pedicels  longer  than  the  calyx.     Fls.  9"  broad.     Sty. 
filiform,  as  long  as  the  oblong  capsule.     May. 

2.  HYPERICUM,  L.      ST.   JOHN'S-WORT.       (Derivation    unknown.) 
Sepals   5,   connected  at  base,  subequal,  leaf-like ;    petals  5,   oblique ; 
stamens  oo  (sometimes  few),  mostly  united  at  base  into  3 — 5  parcels, 


248  ORDER  18.— HYPERICACB^E. 

with  no  glands  between  them  ;  styles  3 — 5,  distinct  or  united  at  base, 
persistent. — Herbaceous  or  shrubby  plants.  Lvs.  punctate  with  pel- 
lucid dots,  opposite,  entire.  Fls.  solitary,  or  in  cymous  panicles, 
yellow. 

§  Stamens  25—100,  more  or  less  united  into  sets  (a). 
§  Stamens  5—15,  not  at  all  united  (d). 

a  Carpels  (and  stylos)  5  or  more.     Capsule  5-celled Nos.  1,  2 

a  Carpels  8.    Capsule  3-celled  (the  placentae  meeting  (b). 

a  Carpels  3.     Capsule  1-celled  (the  placenta?  not  quite  meeting  (c). 

b  Shrubby.     Petals  not  dotted.     Leaves  lanceolate  or  oblanceolate Nos.  3—5 

b  Shrubby.    Petals  not  dotted.    Leaves  linear Nos.  6,7 

b  Herbaceous.     Petals  sprinkled  with  black  dots Nos.  8 — 10 

C  Shrubs.    Styles  united  into  one Nos.  11—14 

C  Half-shrubby.    Styles  united  into  one Nos.  15 — 18 

O  Herbaceous.     Styles  distinct,  at  least  at  the  top y Nos.  19 — 22 

d  Flowers  in  corytnbous  cymes Nos.  23,  24 

d  Flowers  raceined  on  the  slender  branches Nos.  25,  26 

1  H.  pyramidatum  Ait.     Herbaceous;  Ivs.  sessile,  oblong-ovate,  acute;  sty.  5; 
placentae  retroflexed  in  the  cells  of  the  capsule. — If  Hills  and  river  banks.     Ohio 
and  Peun.  to  Can.      St.  3 — 5f  high,  scarcely  angular,  smooth,  rigid.     Branches 
corymbous,  erect,  4-angled.     Lvs.  of  tho  stem  2^ — 5'  long,  £  as  wide,  of  tho 
branches  about  half  these  dimensions.     Fls.  very  large  (!£'  broad)     Petals  obo- 
vate.     Sta.  capillary,  100  or  more.     Caps.  1'  long,  ovoid-conical,  tipped  with  tho 
5  styles.    Sds.  oo.    Jl.,  Aug. 

2  H.  Kalmiamim  L.     Shrubby;   Ivs.  linear-lanceolate,  very  numerous,  obtuse; 
caps.  5-celled,  tipped  with  the  5  styles. — Rocks  below  Niagara  Falls,  etc.     A 
handsome  species,  a  foot  or  more  in  hight.     Lvs.  an  inch  in  length,  slightly  revo- 
lute  on  the  margin,  1-veined,  minutely  and  thickly  punctate,  sessile.     Branches 
slender  and  delicate,  somewhat  4-angled.    Fls.  9"  diam.     Sta.  very  many.    Aug. 

3  H.  Buckley!  Curtis.     Low,  diffusely  branched  from  tho  shrubby  base,  Ivs. 
wedge-oblong  or  obovate,  subsessile,  smooth,  very  obtuse;  fls.  terminal,  solitary^ 
peduricled ;  sep.  unequal,  leafy,  obtuse,  and  with  the  OO  stam.  shorter  than  tho 
petals;  caps.  3-celled,  styles  united. — High.  Mts.  of  N.  Car.  to  Ga.    Stems  8 — 12' 
high.     Lvs.  G  or  7"  by  3  or  4".     Resembles  Ascyrum  Crux- Andres. 

4  H.  prolificum  L.     Branching ;   branches  ancipital,  smooth ;  Ivs.  oblong-lanceo- 
late, obtuse,  narrowed  at  base,  crenulately  waved  at  edge ;  cymes  compound, 
leafy ;  sep.  unequal,   leafy,  ovate,   cuspidate ;  petals  obovate,  a  little  larger  than 
sepals. — A  highly  ornamental  shrub,  2 — 4f  high,  prairies  and  creek  shores,  Mid. 
and  W.  States.     Lvs.  2 — 2^'  long,  4 — 6"  wide.     Fla.  9"  diam.,  orange-yellow  in 
an  elongated  inflorescence.     Sta.  GO.     Jl.,  Aug.  f. 

P.  DEXSIFLORUM  T.  and  G.  Branches  very  numerous;  Ivs.  crowded,  much 
smaller  (less  than  1'  long) ;  fls.  very  numerous,  in  compound  cymes,  and 
much  smaller  (about  G"  diam.) — E.  Tenn.  to  Fla.  (H.  densiflorum  Ph.) 

5  H.  galioides  Lam.     Branches  few,  terete ;  Ivs.  fo'near-lanceolate,  rather  obtuse ; 
cymules  numerous,  axillary  and  terminal,  paniculate ;  sep.  subequal,  linear-lanceo- 
late.— S.  Car.  to  Fla.  in  damp  soil.     St.  2  to  3f  high,  with  straight,  erect  branches 
and  a  smooth  bark.     Lvs.  fascicled  in  the  axils  as  if  whorled,  10  to  15"  by  2  to 
3",  dotted  with  large,  pellucid  glands.     Fls.  about  7"  diam.     Jn.,  Aug. 

6  H.  rosmarimfolium  Lam.     St.  straight,  erect,  sparingly  branched ;  Ivs.  lin- 
ear, shorter  than  the  internodes,  narrowed  at  base  to  a  petiole ;  cymules  dense,  few- 
flowered,  paniclcd. — Ky.  to  Fla.     Smooth  and  handsome,  18   to  30'  high,  half 
shrubby.     Lvs.  1'  to  1^'  long,  1 — 2"  wide,  revolute-edged,  fascicled  in  the  axils 
as  if  whorled.     Fls.  G"  diam.    Sep.  subequal,  about  as  long  as  the  obovate  petals. 
Jn.,  Aug. 

7  H.  fascictilatum  Lam.     Shrub  much  branched,  bushy ;  Ivs.  linear,  very  nar- 
row, longer  than  the  internodes,  sessile;  cymules  leafy. — Wet  places  in  pine  bar- 
rens, Ga.,   Fla.  to  La.,  common.      Bush  1  to  2f  high,  very  leafy.     Lvs.  nearly 
1'  in  length,  recurved  or  straight,  with  smaller  ones  clustered  in  the  axils.     Fls. 
numerous,  G '  diam.     Petals  obovate,  1-toothed  (like  Nos.  4,  5)  about  the  length 
of  the  linear  sepals.     Jl.,  Sept. 

ft.  ABBREVIATUM.  Branches  irregular  and  crooked;  Ivs.  very  short  (2  to  3"), 
tufied  in  tho  axils ;  petals  3  times  longer  than  tho  sepals.— Car.  to  Ga. 


ORDBB  18.— HYPERICACB^I.  249 

8  H.  perforatum  L.     St.  Z-edged,  branched;  Ivs.  with  pellucid  dots ;  sep.  lanceo- 
late, half  as  long  as  the  petals. — If  A  hardy  plant,  prevailing  in  dry  pastures, 
Can.  and  U.  S.,  much  to  the  annoyance  of  farmers.     St  1  to  2f  high,  brachiate, 
erect,  round,   with  2  opposite,  elevated  lines  extending  between   the   nodes. 
Lvs.  6 — 10"  long,  £  as  wide,  ramial  ones  much  smaller,  all  obtuse,  the  dots  as 
well  as  veins  best  seen  by  transmitted  light.     Fls.  numerous,  deep  yellow,  in 
terminal  panicles.     Petals  and  sep.  bordered  with  fine  dark-colored  glands.     Jn., 
JL    §  Eur. 

9  H.  corymbosum  Muhl.     Sts.  terete,  corymbously  branched  ;  Ivs.  oblong-ovate 
or  oval,  obtuse,  marked  with  black  (as  well  as  pellucid)  dots;  sep.  ovate,  acute  (very 
small)  £  as  long  as  the  petals. —  U  Woods  and  plains,  Can.  to  Penn.  and  Ark.  .St. 
1  to  3f  high,  with  many  small  fls.  in  a  corymb  of  dense  cymes.     Lvs.  1  to  2'  long, 
nearly  £  as  wide,  veiny,  either  clasping  or  sessile,  or  (in  a  variety,  E.  Tenn.) 
almost  petiolate.     Fls.  small,  petals  with  oblong  black  dots.     Stig.  orange-red,  on 
distinct  styles.     Jn.,  JL 

10  H.  maculatum  "Walt     St.  terete,  corymbously  branched ;  Ivs.  oblong,  thickly 
sprinkled  with  black  dots;  sep.  lanceolate.— S.  Car.,  Ga.  (Feay)  Fla.     St.  at  first 
simple,  often  becoming  diffusely  branched,  1  to  4f  high.     Lvs.  smaller  (about  1' 
by  3").     Fls.  rather  smaller.     This  species  (or  variety?)  scarcely  differs  from  No. 
8,  but  in  its  bluish  aspect  (from  the  numerous  dots)  and  smaller  Ivs.     Jl.,  Aug. 

11  H.  aureum  Bartram.     Branches  spreading,  ancipital;  Ivs.  thick,  lance- ovate, 
obtuse,  sessile  ;  fls.  (large)  solitary,  sessile. — A  beautiful  shrub,  Ga.,  near  Macon. 
St.  2  to  4f  high.      Lvs.  2  to  3'  long,  ^  as  wide,  obtuse  or  mucronulate,  only  the 
strong  mid- vein  visible,   almost  petiolate,  edge  wavy-crisped.     Fls.   18"  broad. 
Petals  reflexed.     Sta.  excessively  numerous  (more  than  500),  shorter  than  the*3 
partly  united  styles.     Jn.*Aug. 

12  H.  myrtifolium  L.     St.  terete ;  Ivs.  thick,  ovate  or  oblong,  cordate-clasping ; 
fls.  in  a  leafy  compound  fastigiate  cyme,  the  dichotomal  sessile. — Ga.,  Fla.     Shrub 

1  to  2fin  hight,  declined  and  often  divided  at  base,  corymbed  above.  Lvs.  about 
1'  long,  £  or  ^  as  wide,  glaucous.  Sep.  lance-linear,  as  long  as  (3 — 4")  the 
petals,  at  length  reflexed.  Sta.  as  long  as  the*  sty.,  which  separate  at  top. 
May,  Jn. 

13  H.  ambiguum  Ell.    Branches  ancipital ;  Ivs.  lance-linear,  thin,  acute ;  fls.  soli- 
tary and  in  Bs  in  the  axils  of  the  upper  leaves. — Banks  of  the  Congaree  and  Chat- 
tahoochie,  Ga.     Shrub  with  scaly  bark,  2  to  4f  high,  with  numerous,  opposite 
branches.     Lvs.  1  to  2'  long,  3—4"  wide,  sessile,  mucronate,  with  a  white,  cal- 
lous point      Sep.  lance-linear,  as  long  as  the  1-toothed  petals.     Sty.  united. 
May ,  Jn. 

14  H.  cistifolium  Lam.      St.  2-winged,  subsimple;   Ivs.  linear-oblong,    obtuse 
sessile ;  fls.  in  a  Uafless,  compound  cyme. — Ga.  to  Fla.  and  La.     Shrub  straight 
and  erect,  H  to  2f  high.    Lvs.  1'  long,  2 — 3"  wide,  opaque,  with  smaller  ones 
clustered  in  the  axils.     Petals  twice  longer  than  the  oval  sepals.     Sty.  united 
except  at  the  top,  nearly  as  long  as  the  capsule.     May. 

15  H.  adpressum,  Bart/  St.  1-winged  above;  Ivs.  h'near-oblong  or  lanceolate, 
half  erect;  cymes  few-leaved;  sep.  lance-linear;  caps,  almost  3-celled. — Swamps, 
E,  I.,  Penn.  to  Ark.     Plant  about  2f  high.     Lvs.   1—2'  by  2 — 4",   pellucid- 
punctate,  sessile,  rather  acute.     Fls.  6"  diam.,  15 — 20  in  an  almost  leafless  cyme. 
Sep.  unequal,  half  as  long  as  the  oblong-obovate  petals.     Sty.  1.     Aug.,  Sept. 

16  H.  nudifldnim  MX.    St.  and  branches  4.-angkd  and  winged;  Ivs.  ovafe-lanceolate 
or  oblong,  obtuse,  sessile;   cyme  leafless,  peduncled;    sep.  linear;  caps,  almost 
3-celled. — Wet  grounds,  Penn.  to  La,  and  Ga.     Plant  woody  at  base,  1 — 2f  high, 
with  numerous  branches.     Lvs.  thin,  about  2'  long,  with  minute,  pellucid,  reddish 
dots.    Fls.  few,  small,  rather  loose  in  the  stalked  cyme.     Aug.,  Sept. 

17  H.  dolabriforme  Yent     St.  decumbent  at  the  woody  base,  scarcely  2-edged 
above;  Ivs.  linear-lanceolate,  spreading,  veinless;  fls.  in  a  leafy,  fastigiate  cyme ; 
seps.  lance-ovate,  about  as  long  as  the  very  oblique  (dolabriform)  petals. — Ky.  and 
Tenn.     Sts.  6 — 18'  long,  with  scaly  bark  at  base.     Lvs,  1'  or  more  in  length, 
sessile,  with  smaller  ones  in  the  axils  with  brownish  dots.     JL  Aug. 


250  ORDER  18.—  HYPERICACE^E. 

18  H.  spheerocarpon  MX.    St.  obscurely  4-sided;   Ivs.  linear-oblong,  obtuse, 
with  a  minute  callous  tip,  almost  veinless  ;  cyme  compound,  nearly  leafless,  pedun- 
culate; sep.  ovate,  mucronate;  sty.  closely  united;  caps,  globular.  —  Rocky  banks 
of  the  Ohio  and  Ky.  rivers.     St.  somewhat  woody  at  base,  10  —  15'  high.     Lvs. 
1  —  2,'  long,  J  as  wide,  closely  sessile,  with  large,  pellucid  dots.     Fls.  at  length 
numerous,  7"  diarn.     JL 

19  H.  angulosum  MX.   Herb  smooth;  st.  acutely  ^-cornered;  Ivs.  oblong-lanceolate, 
acute  ;  cymes  leafless  ;  sty.  distinct,  thrice  larger  than  the  ovary.  —  Swamps  in  pine 
barrens,  N.  J.  to  Fla.  (Bainbridge,  Ga.,  Misses  Keen).     St.  nearly  2f  high.     Lvs. 
distinct,  opaque,  scarcely  punctate,   8  —  12"  long,  1  —  3"  wide,  edges  re  volute. 
Fls.  often  alternate  on  the  ultimate  branches.     Sepals  ovate,  striate,  acute,  5 
times  shorter  than  the  orange-colored  petals.     Jl. 

20  H.  ellipticum  Hook.     Herb  smooth;  st.  quadrangular,  simple]  Ivs.  elliptical, 
obtuse,  somewhat  clasping,  pellucid-punctate  ;  cyme  pedunculate  ;  sep.  unequal  ; 
sty.  united  to  near  the  summit,  as  long  as  the  ovary.  —  •'!]-  Low  grounds  Can.  to 
Penn.     St.  8—16'  high,  slender,  colored  at  base.     Lvs.  8  —  13"  by  2  —  4",  some- 
what erect,  about  as  long  as  the  internodes.     Cymes  of  about  a  dozen  flowers, 
generally  1  or  2'  above  the  highest  pair  of  leaves.    Central  fls.  subsessile.    Petals 
acutish,  orange-yellow,  2  —  3"  long;  sep.  shorter.     Stig.  minute.     JL 

21  H.  gravdolens  Buckley.     St.  terete,  smooth,  nearly  simple;  Ivs.  oblong-ovate, 
clasping,  punctate  beneath;  cymes  terminal  and  axillary;  sep.  and  pet.  narrow; 
fiLoo;  styles  3.—  High  Mts.,  N.  Car.   (Buckley).     Plant  with  a  strong  odor. 
Stem   2  —  3f   high.     Lvs.    2'  long,    half    as  wide.     Fls.   large  and  numerous 
Jl.—  Aug. 

22  H.  pilosum  "Walt.     Serb  rough-downy  ;  st.  simple,  terete,  virgate  ;  Ivs.  ovate- 
lanceolate,  appressed,  clasping,  acute  ;  cyme  few-flowwed  ;  sty.  distinct,  as  long  as 
the  ovary.  —  CD  Wet  pine  barrens,  S.  Car.  to  Fla.  and  La.,  common.    Lvs.  4  —  8"  loner, 
£  as  wide,  very  acute.     St.  1  —  3f  high,  quite  simple  to  near  the  top,  clothed  with 
a  rough  coat  of  hairs.     Fls.  5  —  6"  diam.,  mostly  alternate  on  the  branches  of  the 
cyme.     Jn.  —  Sept. 

23  H.  mtitilum  L.     DWARF  ST.  JOHN'S  WORT.     St.  quadrangular,  branched  ; 
Ivs.  obtuse,  ovate-oblong,  clasping,  5-veined,  minutely  punctate;  cymes  leafy;  pet. 
shorter  than  the  sep.  ;  sla.  6  —  12.  —  ®  Damp  sandy  soils,  Can.  to  Ga.,  "W.  to  Ind. 
St.  3  —  6  —  9'  high.     Lvs.  closely  sessile,  apparently  connate,  4  —  8"  by  2  —  5", 
outer  veins  obscure.     Fls.  minute,  orange-colored.     JL,  Aug. 

24  H.  Canadense  L.     St.  quadrangular,  branched;  Ivs.  linear,  attenuated  to  the 
base,  with  pellucid  and  also  with  black  dots,  rather  obtuse  ;  pet.  shorter  than  the 
lanceolate,  acute  sep.  ;  sta.  5  —  10.  —  ®  Wet  sandy  soils,  Can.  to  Ga.      St.  6  —  12' 
high,  slightly  4-winged.      Lower  branches   opposite,  upper  pair  forked.     Lvs. 
8  —  12"  by  \  —  1  or  2",  sometimes  linear-lanceolate,  radical  ones  obovate,  short. 
Fls.  small,  orange-colored.     Ova.  longer  than  the  styles.     Caps,  red,  very  acute, 
twice  as  long  as  the  sepals.     Jn.  —  Aug. 

25  H.  Sarothra  MX.     St.  and  branches  filiform,  quadrangular;  Ivs.  very  minute, 
subulate;  fls.  sessile;  sta.  6—10.—®  St.  4—8—12'  high,  branched  above  into 
numerous,  very  slender,  upright,  parallel  branches  apparently  leafless,  from  the 
minuteness  of  the  leaves.     Fls.  very  small,  yellow,  succeeded  by  a  conical  brown 
capsule  which  is  twice  the  length  of  the  sepals.     JL,  Aug. 

26  H.  Drummondii  Torn  &  Gr.     Branches  alternate,  square  above;  Ivs.  linear, 
very  narrow,  acute,  longer  than  the  internodes;  fls.  pedicellate;  sta.  10  —  20; 
sep.  lanceolate,   shorter  than  the  petals,  but  longer  than  the  ovoid  capsule.  — 
(T)  Near  St.  Louis,  to  Ga.  and  La.    Plant  more  robust  than  the  last,  10  —  20'  high, 
very  branching.     Lvs.  £'  long.     Fls.  about  4"  diam. 


3.  ELQDEA,  Adams.  (Gr.  e/Lw^,  marshy  ;  from  the  habitat  of  the 
plants.)  Sepals  5,  equal,  somewhat  united  at  base  ;  petals  5,  deciduous, 
equilateral;  stamens  9  (rarely  more),  triadelphous,  the  parcels  alter- 
nating with  3  hypogynous  glands  ;  styles  3,  distinct  ;  capsule  3  -celled.  — 
if  Herbs  with  pellucid-punctate  Ivs.,  the  axils  leafless.  Fls.  dull  orange- 
purple. 


ORDER  19.— DROSERACE^E.  251 

1  E.  Virglnica  Nutt.    St.  erect,  somewhat  compressed,  branching;  Ivs.  oblong 
amptexicaul ;  sta.  united  below  the  middle,  with  3  in  each  set. — Swamps  and 
ditches.  U.  S.  and  Can.     Whole  plant  usually  of  a  purplish  hue,  9 — 20'  high. 
Lvs.  1$ — 2£'  long,  £  as  wide,  upper  ones  lanceolate,  lower  oblong-ovate,  all  very 
obtuse,  glaucous  beneath.    Fls.  5"  diam.,  terminal  and  axillary.    Pet.  about  twice 
longer  than   the   calyx.     Glands   ovoid,  orange-colored.     Caps,    ovoid-oblong, 
acutish.     JL — Sept 

2  B.  petiolata  Ph.     Lvs.  oblong,  narrowed  at  base  into  a  petiole;  fls.  mostly  in 
3s,  axillary,  nearly  sessile;  filaments  united  above  the  middk;  caps,  oblong,  much 
longer  than  the  sepals. — Swamps  S.  States,  K  to  N.  J.     St.  about  2f  high.     Lvs. 
1 — 3'  long,  rounded-obtuse,  with  a  short  but  distinct  petiole.     Fls.  smaller  than 
hi  the  last.     Aug.,  Sept. 

ORDER  XIX.     DROSERACE^E.     SUXDEWS. 

Serbs  growing  in  bogs,  often  covered  with  glandular  hairs,  with  Ivs.  alternate  or 
all  radical,  mostly  circinate  (rolled  from  top  to  base)  in  vernation ;  fls.  regular, 
hypogynous,  5-merous,  the  sepals,  petals  and  stamens  persistent  (withering) ;  ova. 
compound,  one-celled,  with  the  styles  and  stigmas  variously  parted,  cleft  or  united 
seeds  OO  in  the  capsule,  albuminous ;  embryo  minute. 

Genera,  6,  species  90.  Curious  and  interesting  plants,  scattered  over  the  whole  globe 
wherever  marshes  are  found.  The  halved  stigmas  are  their  most  singular  characteristic.  In 
the  sundew,  <fcc.,  each  half  stigma  is  distinct,  hence  apparently  doubling  their  number,  but  in. 
the  suborder,  Parnassise,  the  adjacent  halves  of  different  stigmas  are  united,  and  thus  stand  op- 
posite to  the  placentse. 

I.  DRdSERA,  L.  SUNDEW.  (Gr.  6$6oo<;,  dew ;  from  the  dew-like 
secretion.)  Sepals  5,  united  at  base,  persistent ;  petals  5 ;  stamens 
5  ;  styles  3 — 5  each  2-parted,  the  halves  entire  or  many-cleft ;  cap- 
sule 3 — 5-valved,  1 -celled,  many-seeded. —  ^  Small  aquatic  herbs.  Lvs. 
covered  with  reddish,  glandular  hairs,  secreting  a  viscid  fluid.  Verna- 
tion circinate. 

Scapes  4 — 6  times  as  long  as  the  leaves Nos.  1 — 3 

Scapes  1—2  times  as  long  as  the  leaves Nos.  4—6 

1  D.  rottmdifolia  L.      Lvs.  orbicular,  abruptly  contracted  into  the  hairy  petiole; 
fls.  white. — A  curious  little  plant,  not  uncommon  in  bogs  and  muddy  shores. 
Whole  plant  of  a  reddish  color,  like  the  other  Sundews,  and  beset  with  glandular 
hairs  which  are  usually  tipped  with  a  small  drop  of  a  clammy  fluid,  glistening 
like  dew  in  the  sun.      Lvs.  about  5"  broad  and  with  the  petioles  1 — 2'  long. 
Scape  slender,  5—8'  high,  the  racemes  uncoiling  as  the  small  white  flowers 
open.     Caps,  oblong.     Jn. — Aug. 

2  D.  minor.     Lvs.  obovate, 'cuneiform  at  base,  the  petioles  naked;  fls.  purple;  scape 
erect. — More  delicate  than  the  preceding,  in  marshes,  Fla.  to  Texas.     Lvs.  form- 
ing a  rosulate  tuft,  8 — 12''  long,  the  smooth  petiole  three  times  longer  than  the 
lamina,  which  is  2 — 3"  wide.     Scapes  filiform,   3 — 6'  high,  the  raceme  simple 
or  forked,   5  or  6-flowered.     Petals  light  purple.     Caps,  globular.     Seeds  ob- 
long, tubercled.      May.     (D.  brevifolia  /3.  major  Torr.  &  Gr.      D.  intermedia 
Chapman.) 

3  D.  brevifolia  Ph.      Lvs.  cuneiform-spatulate,  forming  a  small,  dense  tuft  (I 
diam.) ;  petioles  very  short,  hairy ;  fls.  few,  rose  colored. — In  wet,  springy  places, 
Car.  to  Fla.  and  La.     Not  half  as  large  as  the  last.     Lvs.  5  or  6"  long,  1 — 2" 
broad,  flat  on  the  ground,  forming  a  round,  compact  rosette.     Scape  2  or  3' 
high,  bearing  one  to  three  conspicuous  flowers.     Capsule  roundish.     Apr. 

4  D.  longifolia  L.     Lvs.  spatulate- oblong  or  obovate,  ascending,  alternate,  tapering  at 
base  into  a  long,  smooth  petiole;  scape  declined  at  base;  petals  white. — Slender  and 
delicate,  in  similar  situations  with  the  last.     Lvs.  slender,  ascending,  crenate, 
beset  with  numerous  hairs  tipped  with  dew-like  drops, — length,  including  the 
petioles  2 — 3'.     Candex  lengthened,  decimate.     Scape  bearing  a  simple  racem 
of  small,  white  flowers,  arising  4 — 7'.     Jn. — Aug. 


252  ORDER  19.— -DROSERACE^E. 

6  D.  filifonnis  Raf.  Lvs.  filiform,  very  long,  erect ;  scape  nearly  simple,  longer 
than  the  leaves,  many-flowered;  petals  obovate,  erosely  denticulate,  longer  than 
the  glandular  calyx;  sty.  2-parted  to  the  base. — Grows  in  wet,  sandy  places, 
along  the  coast  Mass,  to  Pla.,  much  larger  than  the  preceding  species.  The  Ivs. 
are  destitute  of  a  lamina,  nearly  as  long  as  the  scape,  beset  with  glandular  hairs, 
except  near  the  base.  Scape  about  a  foot  high,  with  large  purple  flowers.  Aug., 
Sept. 

5  D.  linearis  Goldie.  Lvs.  linear,  obtuse ;  petioles  elongated,  naked,  erect ;  scapes 
few-flowered,  about  the  length  of  the  leaves ;  cal.  glabrous,  much  shorter  than 
the  oval  capsule ;  seeds,  oval,  shining,  smooth. — Borders  of  lake?,  Can.,  Mich,  to 
the  Rocky  Mts.  (Hooker,  Torr.  &  Gr.)  Scape  3 — 6'  high,  with  about  3  small 
flowers.  Lvs.  about  2"  wide,  clothed  with  glandular  hairs,  which  are  wanting  on 
the  petiole.  Jl.,  Aug. 

2.  DIONjfcA,  L.      VENUS'  FLY-TRAP.    (One  of  the  names  of  Venus.) 
Sepals  spreading ;    petals   5,   obovate,  with   pellucid   veins ;    stamens 
10 — 15;  styles  united  into  1,  the  stigmas  many-cleft;  capsule  break- 
ing irregularly  in  opening,  1 -celled ;  seeds  many  in  the  bottom  of  the 
cell. —  5  Glabrous  herbs.      Lvs.  all  radical,  sensitive,  closing  convul- 
sively when  touched.     Scape  umbeled. 

D.  nrascipula  Ell.  A  very  curious  plant,  native  of  sandy  bogs  in  Car.,  along 
rivers  from  the  Neuse  to  the  Santee.  Sometimes  cultivated  in  a  pot  of  bog  earth 
placed  in  a  pan  of  water.  Lvs.  ror,ulate,  lamina  roundish,  spinulose  on  the  mar- 
gins and  upper  surface,  instantly  closing  upon  insects  and  other  objects  which 
light  upon  it.  Scape  G — 12'  high,  with  an  umbel  of  8 — 10  white  flowers.  Apr., 
May.  f 

SUBORDER,  PARNASSIEyE, 

Consists  of  the  single  genus  Parnassia,  which  differs  from  the  Sundews  in  having 
5  sets  of  abortive  stamens  and  the  4  stigmas  placed  over  the  parietal  placentas  (as 
if  each  stigma  were  compounded  of  the  two  adjacent  halves  of  two  divided 
stigmas. 

3.  PARNASSIA,  Tourn.      GRASS    OF  PARNASSUS.       (Named   from 
Mount  Parnassus,  the  abode   of  the  Muses,  Graces,  &c.)      Sepals  5, 
united  at  base,  persistent ;  petals  5,  persistent,  nearly  perigynous  ;  sta- 
mens in  two  series,  the  outer  indefinite  in  number,  united   in   5  groups, 
sterile,  the  inner  5  perfect;  capsule  1-celled,  4-valved;  seeds  very  nume- 
rous with  a  winged  testa. —  4  Glabrous  herbs,  with   radical  Ivs.  and  1- 
flowered  scapes. 

1  P.  Caroliniana  L.     Sterile  fil.,  3  in  each  group,  distinct  to  near  the  lose,  sur- 
mounted with  little  spherical  heads ;  pet.  much  exceeding  the  cal.,  marked  with 
green  veins;  Ivs.  radical,  or  sessile  on  the  scape,  broad,  oval,  with  no  sinus  at 
the  base. — An   exceedingly  elegant  and  interesting  plant,  growing  in  wet  mea- 
dows and  borders  of  streams,  U.  S.  to  Can.     Rt.  fibrous.     Lvs.  7-veined,  broad- 
oval  or  ovate,  smooth,  leathery,  radical  ones  long-stalked,  the  cauline  only  one, 
sessile,  clasping,  a  few  inches   above   the  root.      Scapes   10 — 15'  high,  with  a 
handsome,  regular  flower  about  1'  diam.     Jn. — Aug. 

(3.  Filmcnts  nearly  as  long  as  the  petals ;  cauline  leaf  small  or  none  ;  rhizome 
thick  and  large. — Fla.  (Chapman.) 

2  P.  palustris  L.     Sterile  fil.  pellucid,  setaceous,  9  to  15  in  each  set;  cauline  If., 
if  any,  sessile ;  radical  Ivs.  all  cordate. — Bogs  and  lake  shores,  Mich,  to  Lab.,  and 
W.  to  Rocky  Mts.     Scapes  about  6'  high,  naked  or  with  a  single  clasping  leaf 
near  the  base.     Fls.  white.     Sepals  oblong-lanceolate.     Petals  marked  with  3 — 5 
green  or  purple  veins. 

3  P.  asarifolia  Vent.      Sterile  fil.,  3  in  each  set;  petals  abruptly  clawed ;  Ivs^ 
reniform. — Mts.,  Va.  and  Car.      Lvs.  large  (1 — 2'  broad),  the  cauline  one  sessile, 
orbicular.     Fls.  1'  diam. 


ORDER  21. — CAEYOPHYLLACE^E.  253 

ORDER  XX.     ELATINACE^E.     WATER  PEPPERS. 

Serbs  small,  annual,  with  opposite  leaves  and  membranous  stipules.  FIs.  minute 
axillary.  Sepals  2 — 5,  distinct  or  slightly  coherent  at  base,  persistent.  Petals  by- 
pogynous,  as  many  as  the  sepals.  Sta.  equal  in  number  to,  or  twice  as  many  as 
the  petals.  Anlh  introrse.  Ova.  2 — 6-celled.  Stigmas  2 — 5,  capitate ;  placenta  in 
the  axis.  Fr.  capsular.  Seeds  numerous,  exalbuminous. 

Genera  6,  species  22,  found  in  every  part  of  the  globe,  growing  in  marshes.  The  following  i? 
our  only  northern  genus. 

ELATINE,  L.  (Gr.  ekdrr],  fir ;  from  the  resemblance  of  the  slender 
leaves  of  some  species.)  FIs.  2 — 4-merous.  Stigmas  sessile,  minute. 

E.  Americana  Arn.  MUD  PURSELANE.  St.  diffuse,  procumbent,  striate,  rooting 
from  the  joints,  with  assurgent  branches ;  Ivs.  lance-oval  or  obovate,  obtuse, 
entire ;  sty.  0  ;  sep.,  pet.,  sta.,  stig.  2 — 3,  as  well  as  the  cells  and  valves  of  the 
capsule ;  stip.  very  minute. — A  little  mud  plant,  on  the  borders  of  ponds  and 
rivers,  TJ.  S.  FIs.  axillary,  sessile,  solitary.  Cor.  minute,  closed.  Jl.^ — Sept 
(Crypta  minima  Nutt.  Peplys  Americana  Ph.) 

ORDER  XXI.     CARYOPHYLLACE^E.     PINKWORTS. 

Herbs  with  swollen  joints,  opposite,  entire  leaves,  and  regular  flowers.  Sepals 
4  or  5,  persistent,  distinct,  or  cohering  into  a  tube.  Petals  4  or  5,  unguiculate  or 
not,  bifid  or  entire,  mostly  removed  from  the  calyx  by  a  short  internode  of  the  torus, 
sometimes  wanting.  Stamens  distinct,  twice  as  many  as  the  petals,  rarely  an  equal 
number  or  fewer.  Ovary  often  stipitate ;  styles  2 — 5,  stigmatous  the  whole  length 
of  the  inner  surface.  Fr.  a  1 -celled  capsule  (or  imperfectly  2 — 5  celled),  opening  at 
the  top,  or  loculicidal.  Sds.  numerous;  embryo  curved  around  the  albumen.  (See 
Figs.  70,  209,  258,  296,  299,  300,  313,  392.) 

The  Pinkworts  as  constituted  by  Endleicher  and  others,  and  above  characterized,  comprehends 
four  Suborders,  and  in  the  aggregate  83  genera  and  11SO  species.  They  are  in  general  destitute 
of  active  properties.  A  few  of  them  are  valued  as  highly  ornamental  in  cultivation,  but  tho 
greater  part  are  insignificant  weeds  abounding  in  waste  sandy  tracts  throughout  the  temperate 
tones. 

§  Leaves  furnished  with  dry,  membranous  stipules.    SUBORDER  II.  (J) 
§  Exstipulate. — Capsule  1-celled,  3 — 00-seeded.    Petals  rarely  absent.    SUBORDER  !.(•) 
— Capsule  1-celled,  1-seeded.   'Petals  none.    SUBOKDF.R  III.  (h) 
— Capsule  completely  3-cellcd.     Petals  none.    SUBORDER  IV.  (k) 

*  Sepals  united  into  a  tube.    Petals  long-clawed.    Ovary  stiped.    TRIBE  1.  (a) 

*  Sepals  distinct  or  nearly  so.     Petals  subsessilc.    Ovary  sessile.    TRIBE  2.  (b) 
T  Styles  or  stigmas  5.     Capsule  1-cclled,  OO-seedcd.     TRIBE  3.  (e) 

T  Styles  2  or  united  into  1.    Utricle  1-seeded.    TRIBE  4.  (f ) 

SUBORDER  I.     CARYOPHYLLIN'EJE. 

al.  SILENE^E.— Calyx  with  scale-like  bractlets  at  base.    Styles  2 DIANTHUS.  1 

— Calyx  bractless.— Styles  2.    Capsule  4- toothed  when  open.SAPONARiA.  2 

— Styles  3.     Capsule  6-toothed  when  open. SILENI:.  3 

— Styles  5.     Caps.  10-toothed. . .  AGP.OSTEJIM  A,  4. .  LYCHNIS.  5 
b  2.  ALSINE.<E.— Petals  2-parted  (sometimes  wanting  in  No.  6.)  (c) 

C  Styles  5.    Capsule  opening  at  the  top  by  10  teeth CKRASTIUM.  6 

C  Styles  3.    Capsule  opening  deeply  by  6  half- valves..  .STELLARIA.  7 
—Petals  undivided  (sometimes  wanting  in  No.  9).  (d) 

d  Valves  of  the  capsule  3,  each  2-toothed.    Styles  3 \T.EXARIA.  S 

d  Valves,  &c.,  entire.— Styles  3,  always  fewer  than  sepals ALSINE.  9 

— Styles  4  or  5,  always  as  many  as  sepals.  .SAGINA.  10 

—Styles  3  &5.     Disk  large,  10-lobed.Ho.vKEXYA.  II 

SUBORDER  II.     ILLECEBRINE^E. 

a  8.  BPERGULEJ3.— Styles  5.     Petals  white.     Lvs.  linear,  whorled Si  ERGULA.          12 

—Styles  3  and  5.     Petals  red.     Lvs.  linear,  opposite SPERGULARIA.  13 

.—Styles  Sin  all  the  flowers.— Stipules  ovate.     Lvs.  in  4's.PoLYCARPON.     14 
— Stip.  multifid.    Lvs.  opp. . . STIPULICIDA.     15 


254  ORDER  21.—  CARYOPHYLLACE^. 

f  4.  PARONYCHIE  JL—  Sepals  herbaceous,  distinct  or  nearly  so  ............  PAKONTCHIA.     IS 

—Sepals  white  above,  united  in  a  tube  below  .........  SYPHONYCHIA.    17 

SUBORDER  III.     SCLERANTHINEJ3. 
ll  Styles  2.   Utricle  inclosed  in  the  hardened  calyx  tube  .  .  .SCHLKKANTHUS.  >fc 

SUBORDER  IV.    MOLLUGINE^E. 

k  Styles  8.    Stamens  hypogynous,  3  or  5.    Herb  prostrate.  .MOLLUGO.          19 


1.  DIANTHUS,  L.      PINK.      (Gr.  At6f,  dvdog,  the  flower  of  Jove, 
alluding  to  its  preeminent  beauty  and  fragrance.)      Calyx  cylindrical, 
tubular,  striate,  with  2  or  more  pairs  of  opposite,  imbricated  scales  or 
bractlets  at  base  ;  petals  5,  with  long  claws,  limb  unequally  notched  ; 
stamens  10  ;    styles  2,  tapering,  with  long,  recurved  stigmas  ;    caps. 
cylindric,  1-celled.  —  Beautiful  Oriental  plants,  everywhere  cultivated. 

§  Flowers  in  dense  corymbs.  —  Scales  as  long  as  the  calyx  .........................  Nos.  1,  2 

—  Scales  ovate,  awned,  short  ..............................  No.  7 

§  Flowers  solitary  or  panicled.—  Petals  toothed  or  crenate  ..........................  Nos.  8,  4 

—Petals  fringed  .....................................  Nos.  5,  « 

1  D.  Armeria.  WILD  PINK.  Lvs.  linear-subulate,  hairy  ;  fls.  aggregate,  fascicled  ; 
scales  of  the  calyx  lanceolate,  subulate,  as  long  as  the  downy  tube.  —  ®  Our  only 
wild  species  of  the  pink,  found  in  fields  and  pine  woods,  Mass,  to  N.  J.  St. 
erect,  1  —  2f  high,  branching.  Lvs.  erect,  1  —  2'  long,  1  —  3"  wide  at  the  clasping 
base,  tapering  to  a  subulate  point.  Fls.  inodorous,  in  dense  fascicles  of  3  or 
more.  Cal.  and  its  scales  £'  long.  Petals  small,  pink-colored,  sprinkled  with 
white,  crenate.  Aug.  §  Eur. 

2  D.  barbatus  L.     SWEET  WILLIAM  OR  BUNCH  PINK.     Lvs.  lanceolate  ;  fls. 
aggregate,  fascicled;  scales  of  the  calyx  ovate-subulate,  as  long  as  the  tube.  —  If 
An  ornamental  flower,  still  valued  as  in  the  times  of  old  G-erarde,  "  for  its  beauty 
to  deck  up  the  bosoms  of  the  beautiful,  and  garlands  and  crowns  for  pleasure.'' 
Stems  l^f  high,  thick.      Lvs.  3  to  5'  by  %  to  1',  narrowed  to  the  clasping  base. 
Fls.  in  fastigiate  cymes,  red  or  whitish,  often  greatly  variegated.     May  —  Jl.  f 

3  D.  Chixi^nsis  L.     CHINA  PINK.     St.  branched  ;  Ivs.  linear-lanceolate  ;  fls. 
solitary  ;  scales,  linear,  kafy,  spreading,  as  lony  as  the  tube.  —  ®  Native  of  China. 
An  elegant  speciee,  well  characterized  by  its  leafy,  spreading  scales,  and  its  large, 
toothed  or  crenate,  red  petals.    The  foliage,  like  that  of  the  other  species,  is  ever- 
green, being  as  abundant  and  vivid  in  winter  as  in  summer. 

4  D.  caryoph^llus  L.   CARNATION,  BIZARRES,  PICTOTEES,  FLAKES,  &c.   Lvs. 
linear-subulate,  channeled,  glaucous  ;  fls.  solitary  ;  scales  very  short,  ovate  ;  petals 
very  broad,  beardless,  crenate.  —  Stem  2  —  3f  high,  branched.    Fls.  white  and  crim- 
son ;  petals  crenate.    This  species  is  supposed  to  be  the  parent  of  all  the  splendid 
varieties  of  the  Carnation.    Over  400  sorts  are  now  enumerated  by  florists,  distin- 
guished mostly  by  some  peculiarity  in  color,  which  is  crimson,  white,  red,  purple, 
scarlet,  yellow,  and  arranged  in  every  possible  order  of  stripes,  dots,  flakes  and 
angles. 

5  D.  plumarius  L.     PHEASANT'S  EYE.    Glaucous;   st.  2  —  3-flowered;  fls. 
solitary  ;  calyx  teeth  obtuse  ;  scales  ovate,  very  acute  ;  Ivs.  linear,  rough  at  the 
edge  ;  petals  many-cleft,  hairy  at  the  throat.  —  2£  Native  of  Europe.      From  this 
species  probably  originated  those  beautiful  pinks  called  Pheasant's-eye,  of  which 
there  are  enumerated  in  Scotland  no  less  than.  300  varieties.      Fls.  white  and 
purple.     Jn.  —  Aug.  f 

6  D.  siip£rbus  L.     Lvs.  linear-subulate  ;  fls.  fastigiate;  scales  short,  ovate, 
mucronate;  petals  pinnate.  —  2£  A  singular,  beautiful  pink,  native  of  Europe. 
St.  2f  high,  branching,  with  many  flowers.      Petals  white,  gashed  in  a  pinnate 
manner  beyond  the  middle,  and  hairy  at  the  mouth.     Jl.  —  Sept 

7  D.  Carthtisianorum  L.     The  MONTHLY  PINK,  common  in  house  cultiva- 
tion, with  bright  green,  channeled,  linear  leaves,  short,  csespitous  steins,  pink-red, 
double  flowers,  appears  to  be  a  variety  of  this  species. 

2.  SAPONARIA,  L.     SOAPWORT.      (Latin  sapo,  soap;  the  mucila- 


ORDER  21.— CARYOPHYLLACE^L  255 

ginous  juice  is  said  to  make  soap.)  Calyx  tubular,  5-toothed,  without 
scales  ;  petals  5,  unguiculate  ;  stamens  10 ;  styles  2  ;  capsule  oblong, 
1 -celled.  Petals  often  crowned. 

1  S.  officinalis  L.    BOUNCING  BET.    Lvs.  lanceolate,  inclining  to  elliptical ;  fls. 
in  paniculate  fascicle.! ;    col.  cylindrical;    crown  of  the  petals  linear. — If.  By 
roadsides,  N.  E.  to  Ga.    A  shady,  smooth,  succulent  plant,  with  handsome,  pink- 
like  flowers.     St  1 — 2f  high.     Lvs.  2 — 3'  long,  £  or  more  as  wide,  very  acute. 
Fls.  many,  flesh-colored,  often  double.      The  plant  has  a  bitter  taste,  and  makes 
lather  with  water.     JL,  Aug.     §  Eur. 

2  S.  (Vaccaria)  vulgaris  Mdik.     Lvs.  ovate,  lanceolate,  sessile ;  fls.  in  pan- 
niculate  cymes ;  col.  pyramidal,  5-angled,  smooth ;  bracts  membranous,  acute. — 
®  Gardens  and  cultivated  grounds.      "Whole  plant  smooth,  a  foot  or  more  high. 
Lvs.  broadest  at  base,  1 — 2'  long,  J  as  wide,  tapering  to  an  acute  apex.    Fls.  on 
long  stalks,   pale-red.      Caps.   4-toothed.      Sds.   globous,   black,      July,  Aug. 
§t  Eur. 

3.  SI  L  EKE,  L.  CAMPION.  (Silenus  was  a  drunken  divinity  of  the 
Greeks,  covered  with  slaver,  as  these  plants  are  with  a  viscid  secretion.) 
Calyx  tubular,  swelling,  without  scales  at  the  base,  5-toothed ;  petals  5, 
unguiculate,  often  crowned  with  scales  at  the  mouth,  2  or  many-cleft, 
or  entire ;  stamens  10  ;  styles  3  ;  capsule  3-celled,  opening  at  top  by  6 
teeth,  many-seeded. 

§  Acaulescent,  low,  tufted.    Perennial No.  1 

§  Caulescent— Petals  fringe-cleft,  white  or  rose-color.    Perennial Nos.  2 — 4 

—Petals  bifid  or  entire. — Calyx  inflated,  veiny.    Perennial Nos.  5,  6 

— Calyx  close  on  the  pod.  (*) 

*  Flowers  spicate,  alternate.    Annual Nos.  7,  8 

*  Flowers  not  spicate. — Petals  white,  closed  in  sunshine Nos.  9, 10 

—Petals  red,  purple,  etc.,— bifid Nos.  11, 12 

— entire Nos.  13—15 

1  B.  acaulis  L.     Low  and  densely  caespitous ;  Ivs.  linear,  ciliate  at  base ;  ped. 
solitary,  short,   1-flowered;  cal.  campanulate,  slightly  inflated;   pet.  obcordate, 
crowned.— If  A  little  turfy  plant,  1 — 3'  high,  on  the  "White  Mts.,  K  H.,  and 
throughout  Arctic  Am.     Sts.  scarcely  any.     Leaves  numerous,   ^'  long.     Fls. 
purple. 

2  S.  stellata  Ait.     Erect,  pubescent;  Ivs.  in  whorls  of  4s,  oval-lanceolate,  acumin- 
ate ;  cal.  loose  and  inflated ;  petals  fimbriate. —  2£  An  elegant  plant,  woods  and 
prairies,  Can.  to  Car.,  W.  to  111.  and  Ark.     St  2 — 3f  high,  paniculately  cymous. 
Lvs.  2 — 3'  long,  £  as  wide,  tapering  to  a  long  point,  sessile.     Cal.  pale  green, 
with  more  deeply  colored  veins.     Petals  white,  lacerately  fringed,  claws  webbed 
at  base.     Jl. 

3  S.  ovata  Ph.     Erect,  puberulent;    Ivs.  opposite,  lance-ovate,   acuminate;  caL 
ovate,  not  inflated;  pet.  many-cleft,  crownless. — Virg.  to  Ga.,  rare.     Sts.  stout, 
2 — 4f  high,  branched  from  the  base.     Lvs.  4- — 5'  long,  broadest  at  base.     Claws 
of  the  white  petals  exserted  from  the  short  calyx,  the  limb  deeply  and  repeatedly 
forked,  with  linear  segments.     Fil.  long,  exserted. 

4  S.  Baldwin!!  Nutt.     Weak  hairy;  Ivs.  obnvate-spatulate  ;  oalyx  not  inflated; 
pet.  cuneiform,  divaricately  fimbriate. — River  banks  near  Quincy,  Fla,      Sts.  de- 
cumbent at  base,  1  to  2f  high.     Lvs.  few,  much  shorter  than  the  internodes,  1  to 
2'  long,  the  upper  elliptical,  acute.     Cyme  of  3  to  5  largo  (2'  broad),  pale  rose- 
colored  flowers.     Apr. 

5  S.  nivea  DC.     Minutely  puberulent,  erect,  subsimple;   Ivs.  oblong-lanceolate, 
acuminate;  fls.  few,  solitary,  kafy  ;  cal.  inflated;  pet.  2-cleft,  with  a  small  bifid 
crown ;  caps,  shorter  than  its  stipe. —  If  In  moist  places,  Penn.,  Ohio,  111.,  rare.    St 
slender,  leafy,  1J  to  3f  high,  generally  forked  near  the  top.     Lvs.  2  to  3'  by  6  to 
9",  tapering  to  a  very  slender  point,  floral  ones  lance-ovate.     Fls.  1  to  3.     Cal. 
reticulated.     Petals  white. 

6  S.  inflata  Smith.     BLADDER  CAMPION.      Glabrous  and  glaucous;  Ivs.  ovate- 
lanceolate  ;  fls.  in  cymous,  leafiest  panicles,  drooping ;  caL  ovoid-globular,  much 


256  ORDER  21.— CARYOPHYLLACEJE. 

inflated  and  netted;  sty.  long-exserted ;  caps,  short-stiped. — 1(  In  pastures, 
about  fences,  Charlestown,  Mass.,  etc.  St.  erect,  about  2f  high.  Lvs.  1  \  to  3' 
long,  \  as  wide,  rather  acuminate.  Petals  white,  cleft  half  way  down.  Cal.  with 
pale  purple  veins.  Jl. — The  young  shoots  and  leaves  may  be  used  as  a  substitute 
for  Asparagus.  §  Eur. 

7  S.  quinquevulnera  L.    Branched,  villous ;  Ivs.  oblong-spatulate,  obtuse,  the 
highest  linear ;  spike  somewhat  one  sided ;  cal.  very  viUous ;  petals  roundish,  en- 
tire, crowned. — (D  About  Charleston,  S.  C.     A  foot  high.     Petals  pink  or  crim- 
son, with  the  border  pale-purple.     JL     §  Eur. 

8  S.  nocturna  L.     St.  branching,  hairy  below ;  Ivs.  pubescent  with  long  cilise  at 
base,  lower  ones  spatulate,  upper  lance-linear;  fls.  appressed  to  the  stem  in  a 
dense  one  sided  spike ;  cal.  cylindrical,  almost  glabrous,  reticulated  between  the 
veins;  pet.  narrow,  '2-parted.—®  Near  New  Haven,  Ct.  (Robbins)  to  Penn.,  Va. 
Fls.  white,  greenish  beneath.     Jl.  f  §  Eur. 

9  S.  Antirrhina  L.     SNAP-DRAGON  CATCH-FLY.     Nearly  smooth,  erect,  branched 
above ;  Ivs.  lanceolate,   acute,  the  upper  linear ;  fls.  few,  on  slender  pedicels  or 
branches ;  cal.  ovoid ;  pet.  emarginate. — CD  Road  sides  and  dry  soils,  Can.  and 
U.  S.     St.  slender,  branching,  with  opposite  leaves,  about  a  foot  in  height.     Lvs. 
about  2  long,  the  upper  ones  very  narrow,  all  sessile,  and  scabrous  on  the  mar- 
gin.    A  few  of  the  upper  internodes  are  viscidly  pubescent  above  their  middle. 
Fls.  small,  red,  in  loose,  erect  cymes.     Jl. 

ft  LINARIA.     Very  slender;  Ivs.  all  linear  except  the  lowest,  which  are  linear- 
spatulate ;  cal.  globular.     Ga.  and  Fla. 

10  S.  noctiflora  L.     Viscid-pubescent;  st.  erect,  branching;  lower  Ivs.  spatu- 
late, upper  linear  ;  cal.  cylindrical,  ventricous,  the  alternate  veins  veinleted,  teeth 
subulate,  very  long ;  petals  2-parted. — ®  Cultivated  grounds.     Fls.  rather  large, 
white,  expanding  only  in  the  evening,  and  in  cloudy  weather,  f  §  Eur. 

11  S.  Virginica  L.     Viscid-pubescent ;    st.  procumbent  or  erect,  branching; 
root-lvs.  spatulate,  cauline  oblong-lanceolate  ;  fls.  large,  cymous,  cal.  large,  clavate ; 
pet.  bifid,  broad,  crowned.— Ij.  Gardens  and  fields,  Penn.  to  Ga.    St.  1  to  2f 
high,  often  procumbent  at  base.     Lvs.  a  little  rough  at  the  margin.     Cymes 
dichotomous.     Sta.  and  pistils  exserted.     Petals  large,  red.  Jn.  f 

12  S.  rotundifolia  Nutt.     Pubescent,  weak,  decumbent,  branching;  Iva.  thin, 
roundish-oval;  fls.  solitary,   very  large;  cal.  cylindric-campanulate ;   pet.   bifid, 
crowned. — Rocks,  Western  States,  rare.     Lvs.  1  to  3'  by  1  to  2',  the  upper  sub- 
orbicular.     Petals  deep  scarlet.     Jn.,  Aug. 

13  S.  Fenrisylvanica  MX.    "Viscid-pubescent  •  sts.  numerous ;  Ivs.  from  the  root 
spatulate  or  cuneate,  of  the  stem  lanceolate;  cyme  few-flowered;  pet.  slightly 
emarginate,  subcrenate. — 14-  Dry,  sandy  soils,  N.  Sng.  to  Ky.  and  Ga.     St.  de- 
cumbent at  base,  nearly  If  high,  with  long,  lanceolate  leaves,  and  terminal,  up- 
right bunches  of  flowers.     Cal.  long,  tubular,  very  glutinous  and  hairy.     Pet. 
wedge-shaped,  red  or  purplish.     Jn. 

14  S.  regia  Sims.     SPLENDID  CATCH-FLY.     Scabrous,  somewhat  viscid ;  st.  rigid, 
erect ;  Ivs.  ovate-lanceolate ;  cyme  paniculate ;  pet.  oblanceolate,  entire,  erose  at 
the  end ;  sta.   and  stig.  exserted. —  2£  A  large  species,  beautiful  in  cultivation, 
native  Ohio  to  La.     Sts.  3  to  4f  high.     Lvs.  2  to  3'  by  8  to  15".    Fls.  very  large, 
numerous.      Cal.  tubular,    10-striate,    1'  long.      Petals  bright-scarlet,  crowned. 
Jn.,  Jl.  f 

15  S.  Armeria  L.     GARDEN  CATCH-FLY.    Very  smooth,  glaucous ;  st.  branching, 
glutinous  below  each  node ;  Ivs.  ovate-lanceolate ;  fls.  in  corymbous  cymes ;  pet. 
obcordate,  crowned;  cal.  clavate,  10-striate. — ®  A  popular  garden  flower,  spar- 
ingly naturalized.     St.  1  to  l^f  high,  many-flowered.    Lvs.  1£  to  2£'  long,  J  as 
wide ;  internodes*  elongated.     Cal.  f  long,  a  little  enlarged  above.    Petals  purple, 
laminae  half  as  long  as  the  calyx.    JL,  Sept.  f  §  Eur. 

4.  AGROSTEMMA,  L.  CORN  COCKLE.  (Gr.  dygovore^a^  crown 
of  the  field.)  Calyx  bractless,  tubular,  coriaceous,  the  limb  of  5  long, 
leafy,  deciduous  sepals,  exceeding  the  corolla  ;  petals  undivided,  crown- 


ORDER  2 1.— CARYOPHYLLACE^E.  257 

less  ;  stamens  10  ;  styles  5  ;  capsule   1 -celled,  opening  at  the  top  by  5 

teeth. — Q)  and  d).    Erect,  hairy,  dichotomous. 

A  Githago.  A  well  known,  handsome  weed,  growing  in  fields  of  wheat  or 
"  other  grains,  and  of  a  pale  green  color.  St.  2  to  3f  high,  forked  above.  Lvs. 
linear,  long  (3  to  5'),  fringed  with  long  hairs.  Fls.  few,  large,  of  a  dull  purple,  on 
long,  naked  stalks.  Sds.  roundish,  angular,  purplish-black,  injurious  to  the  white- 
ness of  the  flour.  Jl.  §  Eiir. 

5.  LYCHNIS,  L.     (Gr.  hvxvog,  a  lamp;  some  cottony  species  having 
been  used  as  lamp-wick.)     Calyx  bractless,  tubular,  oblong  or  ovoid, 
limb  of  5  short   lobes,   persistent ;   petals  5,    entire    or  cleft,  mostly 
crowned;  stamens  10  ;  styles  5  ;  capsule  more  or  less  5-celled  at  base, 
opening  by  5  to  10  teeth. — Handsome  perennials,  cultivated. 

§  Fls.  perfect,— Petals  entire  or  2-parted Hos.  1,  2 

—Petals  laciniate,  or  4-parted Nos.  3,  4 

§  Flowers  dioecious.    Petals  2-lobed Nos.  5,  6 

1  L.  coronaria  DC.     MULLEIN  PINK.      ROSE  CAMPION'.     Vfilous ;   st.  di- 
chotomous; ped.  long,  \-fiowered;   cal  campanula^,  veined;  pet.  broad,  entire. — 
Native  of  Italy.     "Whole   plant  covered  with  dense  wool     St.  2f  high.     Fls. 
purple,  large.  "  Varieties  are  white-flowered,  red  double-flowered,  etc.  f . 

2  L.  Clialcedonica  L.    SCARLET  LYCHNIS  or  SWEET  WILLIAM.   Smoothish ; 
fis.  fasciculate ;  cal.  cylindric,  clavate,  ribbed  ;  pet.  2-lobed. — A  fine  garden  flower, 
native  of  Russia.     St.  1  to  2f  high,  with  dark  green,  ovate-lanceolate,  acuminate 
Ivs.,  and  large,  terminal,  convex,  dense  fascicles  of  deep-scarlet  flowers.     It  has 
varieties  of  white  fls.  and  also  with  double.     Jn.,  Jl.  f . 

3  L.  Floscuculi  L.    RAGGED  ROBIN.   Smoothish  ;  st.  ascending,  dichotomous 
at  summit;  fls.  fascicled ;  cal.  campanulate,  10-ribbed;  pet.  in  4  deep,  linear  seg- 
ments.— Xative  of  Europe.     St.  1  to  2f  high,  rough  angled,  viscid  above.     Lvs. 
lanceolate,  smooth.     Fls.  pink,  very  beautiful,  with  a  brown,  angular,  smooth 
calyx.     Caps,  roundish,  1-celled.     JL,  Sept.  f 

4  L.  coronata  L.    CHINESE  LYCHNIS.    Smooth ;  fl-s.  terminal  and  axillary,  1  to 
3  ;  cal.  rounded,  clavate,  ribbed ;  pet.  laciniate. — Native  of  China.     St.   1  to  2f 
high.     Petals  of  lively  red,  remarkable  for  their  large  size.     There  are  varieties 
with  double  red  and  double  white  flowers,  f . 

5  L.  diiiraa  L.     St.  dichotomous-paniculate  ;  fls.  $  ?  ;  petals  half-bifid,  lobes 
narrow,  diverging;    caps,  ovoid-globous. — Native  of  Britain,  almost  naturalized. 
Sts.  about  2f  high,  pubescent.     Lvs.  1  to  3'  long,  elliptic-ovate,  acute.     Fls.  light- 
purple,  middle  size. 

6  L.  dioica  L.     Dioecious;  st   dichotomous-paniculate;  petals  half-bifid,  the 
lobes  broad,   approximating ;    caps,  conical. — Hardy  at  the  South.     St.  2f  high, 
hoary-pubescent.     Lvs.  lance-ovate,  acuminate,  1  to  2'  long.     Fls.  white,  middle- 
size.     Jn. — Aug.     f  Eur. 

6.  CERASTIUM,  L^  MOUSE-EAR  CHICK-WEED.     (Gr.  Kepdg,  a  horn ; 
from  the  resemblance  of  the  capsule  of  some  of  the  species.)     Calyx  of 
5,  ovate,   acute   sepals;  corolla  of  5,  bifid  pqtals ;  stamens  10,  some- 
times 5  or  4,  the   alternate  ones  shorter ;  styles  5 ;  capsules  cylindri- 
cal or  roundish,  elongated,   opening  at  the  apex  by  10  teeth ;  seeds 
numerous. — Fls.  cymous,  white. 

§  Petals  about  ns  Ion?  as  the  calyx .Nos.  1,  2 

§  Petals  much  longer  than  the  calyx Nos.  3 — 5 

1  C.  vulgatum  L.  Hairy,  pale  green,  caespitous ;  Ivs.  attenuated  at  base,  ovate 
or  obovate,  obtuse ;  fls.  in  subcapitate  clusters;  sep.  when  young,  longer  than  the 
pedicels. — (1)  Fields  and  waste  grounds,  Can.  and  U.  S.,  flowering  all  summer. 
St.  G  to  12'  long,  ascending,  mostly  forked.  Lvs.  5  to  8"  by  3  to  5",  mostly  very- 
obtuse,  lower  ones  tapering  to  the  base.  Fls.  in  dense,  terminal  clusters,  the 
terminal  (central)  one  solitary,  always  the  oldest.  Seps.  mostly  green,  a  little 
shorter  than  the  corolla.  Petals  white,  appearing  in  10  segments. 

17 


258  ORDER  21.— -CARYOPHYLLACE^E. 

2  C.  viscosum  L.     Hairy,  viscid,  spreading';  Ivs.  oblong- lanceolate,  rather  acute; 
fls.  in  loose  cymes;  sep.  scarious  and  white  on  the  margin  and  apex,  shorter  than 
the  pedicels. — rl\.  Fields  and  waste  grounds,  TJ.  S.  and  Can.     Plant  greener  than 
the  last.     Sts.  many,  assurgent,  dichotomously  cymous.     Lvs.  5  to  9"  long,  £  to 
b  as  wide,  radical  ones  subspatulate.     Fls.  white,  in  diffuse  cymes.     Pet.  hardly 
as  long  as  the  sep.,  obovate,  bifid.     Sta.  rarely  but  5.     Jn. — Aug. 

3  C.  arvense  L.     Pubescent,  somewhat  caespitous;  Ivs.  linear-lanceolate,  acute, 
often  longer  than  the  internodes ;  cyme  on  a  long,  terminal  peduncle,  four-flow- 
ered ;  petals  more  than  twice  longer  than  the  calyx ; .  caps,  scarcely  exceeding  the 
sepak. — 1\.  Rocky  hills.     Sts.  4  to  10'  high,  decumbent  at  base.     Lvs.  9  to  15" 
long,  1  to  2"  wide.     Fls.  white,  rather  large.     Caps,  usually  a  little  longer  than 
the  calyx.     May — Aug. 

4  C.  oblongifolium  Torr.     Yillous,  viscid  above;    st  erect  or   declined;  Ivs. 
oblong-lanceolate,  mostly  obtuse,  and  shorter  than  the  internodes ;  fls.  numerous, 
in  a  spreading  cyme ;  pet.  twice  as  long  as  the  sepals ;  caps,  about  twice  as  long  as 
the  calyx.— -TJ.  Rocky  places.    Sts.  6  to  10'  high,  thick.     Lvs.  9  to  12"  by  3  to  5", 
tapering  from  base  to  an  acute  or  obtuse  apex.     Fls.  larger  than  either  of  the 
foregoing,  white,  in  two  or  three-forked  cymes.     Apr. — Jn. 

'5  C.  nfttans  Raf.  Yiscid  and  pubescent;  st.  weak,  striate-sulcate,  erect;  Ivs- 
lanceolate ;  fls.  many,  diffusely  cymous,  on  long,  filiform,  nodding  pedicels ;  pet. 
nearly  twice  as  long  as  the  cal. ;  caps,  a  little  curved,  nearly  thrice  as  long. — (T) 
Low  grounds,  Vt.  to  111.  and  La.  Pale  green  and  clammy.  Sts.  8  to  15'  high, 
branched  from  the  base.  Lvs.  %  to  2'  long,  £  as  wide.  Fls.  white.  May. — 
Yaries  greatly  at  different  dates ;  beginning  to  flower  when  small  in  all  its  parts. 

7.  STELLARIA,  L.  STAR  CHICKWEED.  (Latin,  stella,  a  star — from 
the  stellate  or  star-like  flowers.)  Sepals  5,  connected  at  base  ;  petals  5, 
2-parted,  rarely  0 ;  stamens  10,  rarely  fewer;  styles  3,  sometimes  4; 
capsule  ovoid,  1 -celled,  valves  as  many  as  styles,  2-parted  at  top  ;  seeds 
many. — Small  herbs  in  moist,  shady  places.  Fls.  in*  forked  cymes  or 
axillary,  white. 

§  Stems  leafv  to  the  top,  or  with  leafy  bracts,  (a) 

§  Stems  leafless  above,  bearing  scarious  bracts Nos.  6 — S 

a  Leaves  ovate.  Stems  prostrate,  pubescent Nos.  1,  2 

a  Leaves  oblong,  lanceolate  or  linear Nos.  3—5 

1  S.  media  Smith.     CHICKWEED.     Lvs.  ovate ;  st.  procumbent,  with  an  alternate, 
lateral,  hairy  line ;  pet.  shorter  than  the  sep;  sta.  3  to  5  or  10. — A  common  weed 
in  almost  every  situation  N.  of  Mexico,  flowering  from  the  beginning  of  Spring 
to  the  end  of  Autumn.     Sts.  branched,  becoming  cymous,  brittle,  round,  jointed, 
leafy,  and  remarkably  distinguished  by  the  hairy  ridge.     Fls.  small,  white.     The 
seeds  are  eaten  by  poultry  and  birds.     §  Eur. 

2  S.  prostrata  Baldw.     Lvs.  ovate,  the  lower  on  long  petioles ,  sts.  procumbent, 
hollow,  pubescent;  fls.  on  long  pedicels;  pet.  longer  man  sepals;  stam.  1. — CD  Ga. 
and  Fla.     Sts.   1  to  4f  long,   slightly  channelled  and  downy ;    lower  Ivs.  sub- 
cordate,  shorter  than  the  ciliate-petioles.     Fls.  small     Mar.,  Apr. 

3  S.  pftbera  Michx.     St.  ascending,  pubescent  in  one  lateral  or  two  opposite  lines; 
Ivs.  oblong  or  elliptical,  acute,  sessile,   somewhat   ciliate;    fls.  on  filiform,  finally 
recurved  pedicels ;  petals  longer  than  the  sepals. —  If  In  rocky  places,  Penn.  to 
Ind.  and  Ga.     St.  6  to  12'  high,  often  diffusely  spreading.     Lvs.  1  to  2-J'  by  4  to 
10",  with  minute,  scattered  hairs.      Fls.  J'  diam.,  axillary  and  terminal,  with  10 
stamens  and  3  styles.     Sep.  white-edged.     Apr. — Jn. 

4  S.  uniflora  Walt.      St.  glabrous,  erect,   branched  from  the  base;  Ivs.  linear- 
subulate,  lanceolate,  acute ;    ped.  axillary,  solitary,    1-flowered ;  pet.  emarginate, 
twice  as  long  as  the  sep.—®  N.  Car.,  Ga.,  in  swamps.     Sts.  10 — 12'  high,  slen- 
der.    Lvs.  much  shorter  than  the  internodes.      Ped.  filiform,  as  long  (2  to  3')  as 
the  internodes.     May. 

5  S.  borealis  Bigelow.      St.  weak,  smooth;  Ivs.  veiriless,  lanceolate,  acute;  ped. 
at  length  axillary,  elongated,  1-flowered ;  petals  2-parted  (sometimes  wanting), 


ORDER    21.—  CARYOPHYLLACKjE.  259 

about  equal  to  the  veinless  sepals.  —  CD  Wet  places,  K  H.,  N.  Y.,  N.  to  Arctic 
Am.  A  spreading,  flaccid  plant.  St.  6  to  12  or  15'  long,  with  diffuse  cymes 
both  terminal  and  axillary.  Lvs.  8  to  15"  long,  1-veiued.  Petals,  when  present, 
white,  small,  at  length  about  as  long  as  the  lanceolate,  acute  sepals.  Caps,  longer 
than  the  calyx.  Jn.3  JL 

6  S.  aquatica  Pollich.      Nearly  glabrous;    st.  slender,   decumbent;    Ivs.  lance- 
oval  and  oblong,  acute,  with  manifest  veinlets  ;    cymes  lateral  ;   sep.   lanceolate, 
very  acute,  3-veined,  rather  longer  than  the  bifid  petals;    caps,    ovoid,    about 
equalling  the  calyx;    sty.  3.  —  '4-   Swampy   springs,  Penn.,  Md.  (Dr.  Robbins); 
also,  Rocky  Mts.    A  very  slender  plant,  6  to  12'  long,  with  inconspicuous  flowers 
Lvs.  6"  by  2  to  3".     May.     (Labraea  uliginosa  Hook.) 

7  S.  longipes  Goldie.     Smooth  and  shining  ;  st.  more  or  less  decumbent,  with 
ascending  branches;  Ivs.  linear-lanceolate,  broadest  at  base,  acute;  peduncles  and 
pedicels  erect,  filiform,  cymous,  with  ovate  membranous  bracts  at  base  ;  sep.  with 
membranous  margins,  obscurely  3-veined,  scarcely  shorter  than  the  petals.  —  Q 
Lake  shores,  N.  Y.  and  Mich.     Petals  white,  2-parted.     Fls.  in  loose  cymes,  the 
terminal  peduncle  or  the  middle  one  the  longest     Jn.  —  Aug 

8  S.  longifolia  Muhl.    Lvs.  linear  ;  cyme  terminal,  spreading,  with  lanceolate, 
scarious  bracts;  pedicels  spreading;  cal.  3-veined  about  equal  to  the  petals.  —  U. 
S.  N.  to  Arc.  Circle.      The  stems  are  of  considerable  length,  very  slender  and 
brittle,  supported  on  other  plants  and  bushes.     Lvs.  alternate  at  base.     Fls.  in  a 
divaricate,  naked  cyme,  very  elegant,  white,  appearing  in   10  segments  like  the 
other  species.    Three  sharp,  green  veins  singularly  distinguish  the  sepals.   Jn.,  Jl. 

8.  ARENARIA,  L.  SANDWORT.  (Lat.  arena,  sand  ;  in  which  most 
species  grow.)  Sepals  5,  spreading;  petals  5,  entire;  stamens  10, 
rarely  fewer  ;  styles  3  ;  ovary  1-celled  ;  capsule  3-valved,  valves  each 
2-parted  ;  seeds  oo.  —  Sty.  rarely  2  or  4. 

ARENAKIA.    Leaves  and  sepals  acute.    Seeds  not  appendaged  .......................  Nos.  1,  2 

MUJRINGIA.    Leaves  and  sepals  obtuse.    Seeds  strophiolate  ...........................  No.  3 

1  A.  serpyllifolia  L.    THYME-LEAVED  SANDWORT.    St.  dichotomous,  spreading  ; 
Ivs.  ovate,  acute,  subciliate;  cal.  acute,  striate;  petals  shorter  than   the  calyx; 
caps,  ovate,   6-toothed.  —  (£)  By  roadsides  and  in  sandy  fields,  Ms.  to  Ga.      Sts. 
numerous,  downy,  with  reflexed  hairs,  a  few  inches  in  length.     Lvs.  but  little 
longer   than   a    flaxseed,    beautifully   ciliate.       Fls.    on   axillary  and   terminal 
peduncles.     Pet.  white,  oval,  mostly  much  shorter  than  the  3  to  5-veined,  accu- 
minate,  hairy  sepals.     Jn. 

2  A.  diffusa  Ell.      St.  long,  decumbent,  diffuse;  Ivs.  oblong  or  ovate-lanceolate, 
acute  at  both  ends;  ped.   1  -flowered;  sep.  acute:  pet.  oval,  entire,  much  shorter 
than  the   calyx,  but   generally  wanting.  —  Moist  woods,  N.  Car.  to  Fla.  and  Ga. 
Sts.  clambering,  2   to  5f  in  length,  pubescent.      Lvs.  minutely  dotted,  attenuate 
at  base  often  to  a  petiole,  6  to  12"  long.     Ped.  twice  as  long,  terminal,  but  soon 
axillary.     Cal.  as  long  (1")  as  in  No.  1.     Apr.  —  Jn.      (Stellaria  lamiginosa  Torr. 
&  Gr.) 

3  A.  lateriflora  L.     Upright,  slightly  pubescent;  Ivs.  oval,  obtuse;  ped.  lateral, 
2  to  3-flowered  ;  sds.  (strophiolate)  appendaged  at  the  hilum.  —  1{-  Damp,  shady 
grounds,  N".  States  and  Brit.  Am.    St.  6  to  10'  high,  nearly  simple,  slender.    Lvs. 
elliptical,  rounded  at  each  end,  6  to  10"  long,  £  as  wide,  on  very  slender  petioles. 
Ped.  terminal  and  lateral,  2  to  3'  long,  dividing  into  2  or  more  filiform  pedicels, 
one  of  them  with  2  bracteoles  in  the  middle.     Fls.  4"  diam.  ;  white  petals  more 
than  twice  as  long  as  the  sepals.     Jn.     (Moeringia,  L.) 


9.  ALSINE,  "Wahl.  GROVE  SANDWORT.  (Gr.  a/uro^,  a  grove  ;  the 
favorite  locality  of  these  little  plants.)  Sepals  5  ;  petals  o,  entire  or 
merely  notched  at  apex  ;  stamens  10  ;  styles  3  ;  ovary  1-celled;  cap- 
sule deeply  3-valved,  valves  entire;  seeds  oo.  —  Small,  slender  herbs, 


260  ORDER  21.— CARYOPHYLLACE^E. 

with  very  narrow,  minute  Ivs.  and  whit3  fls.     (The  species  were  for- 
merly included  in  the  last  genus.) 

§  Sepals  3  to  5- veined,  acute Nos.  1—3 

§  Sepals  veinless,  obtuse. — Leaves  densely  imbricated No.  4 

— Leaves  opposite,  distant Nos.  5 — 7 

1  A.  pdtula  Gray.      Diffusely  and  divaricately  branched,  glandular-pubescent; 
Ivs.  linear-filiform,  obtuse  ;  petals  emarginate. — (I)  Rocky  cliffs,  Va.  and  Ky.     Sts. 
exceedingly  slender,  6 — 10'  high,  many  from  one  root.     Lvs.  few  and  minute,  3 
to  5"  long,  obtuse  under  a  lens.     Cyme  at  length  diffuse  and  many-flowered. 
Petals  twice  as  long  (2'')  as  the  3  to  5-veined  sepals.     Jn.,  JL     (Arenaria  MX.) 

2  A.  Pftcheri.     Erect,  fastigiately  "branched,  almost  glabrous ;  Ivs.  linear,  obtuse, 
Hat ;  pet.  entire,  twice  as  long  as  the  6-veined  sepals. — (1)  Davison  Co.,  Tenn. 
(Prof.  Calender),  and  westward.     Sts.  several  from  one  root,  simple,  with  a  few- 

'  flowered  (3  to«7),  pedunculate  cymo  at  top,  3  to  6'  high.  Lvs.  rather  erect,  3  to 
6''  by  A".  Pedicels  minutely  glandular.  Petals  about  3"  long.  (Arenaria, 
Xutt.) 

3  A.  stricta.     Glabrous,  diffuse ;  st.  branched  from  the  base ;  Ivs.  subulate-lin- 
ear, rigid,  so  fascicled  in  the  axils  as  to  appear  whorledj  cymes  few-flowered, 
with  spreading  branches. —  If  Sterile  grounds,  Arc.  Am.  to  Car.     Sts.  8  to  10' 
high.     Lvs.  5  to  8"  long,  very  narrow  and  acute,  rigid,  sessile,  1-veined,  much 
fascicled  in  the  axils.     Pet.  obovate-oblong,  twice  as  long  as  the  3-veined,  ovate- 
lanceolate  sepals.    May,  Jn,     (Arenaria,  MX.  Alsino  Michauxii  Fenzl.) 

4  A.  squarrosa  Fenzl.     Csespitous;  st.  few-flowered;  lower  Ivs.  squarrous-im- 
bricate,  crowded,  upper  ones  few,  all  subulate,  channeled,  smooth ;  pet.  obovato, 
3  tunes  longer  than  the  obtuse,  veinless  sepals. — 7J.  In  sandy  barrens,  Long 
Island  to  Ga.     Sts.  6  to  10'  high,  pubescent,  much  divided  at  base  into  simple 
branches.     Lvs.  about  A/  long,  obtuse,   sessile.     Fls.  white,  in  small,  terminal 
cymes.    Sep.  green.    Caps,  obtuse.     Apr., — Sept.     (Arenaria  MX). 

5  A.  Greenldiidica  Fenzl.     Ccespitous  ;  sts.  numerous,  filiform  ;  Ivs.  linear,  flat, 
spreading;  pod.  1-flowered,  elongated,  divaricate. —  If.  Summits  of  high  moun- 
tains, N.  II.,  N.  Y.  to  Greenland.    It  grows  in  tufted  masses  consisting  of  exceed- 
ingly numerous  stems  about  3'  high,  and  sprinkled  over  with  large  (S''  diam.) 
white  fls.  with  yellow  stamens.     Lvs.  4  to  6"  by  £",  numerous.     Sepals  ovate, 
veinless.     Aug.     (Arenaria,  Spreng.) 

6  A.  brevifolia.     Erect  (not  tufted),  few-leaved;  sts.  many,  filiform,  simple,  cym- 
ous  above;  Ivs.  minute,  10  times  shorter  than  the  internodes,  ovate,  subulate;   sep. 
oblong. — Rocks  (Stone  Mt.,   &c.),  Ga.     Sts.   almost  capillary,   2 — 3'  high,  with 
about  3  pairs  of  leaves  and  3  to  7  flowers  on  long  pedicels.    Fls.  not  half  as  largo 
as  in  the  preceding  (about  4''  diam.)     Lvs.   1"  long.     Apr.,  May.      (Arenaria 
Nutt.) 

7  A.  glabra.     Ceespitous,  glabrous ;  sts.  decumbent,  filiform ;  Ivs.  linear-setaceous, 
spreading;  sep.  oval,  veinless,  half  as  long  as  the  petals. —  If.  Mts.  Car.  to  Ga.  and 
Ala.     Sts.  very  numerous,  5  to  8"  high,  forming  grass-like  tufts,  the  branches 
exceedingly  slender,  divaricate.     Lvs.  5  or  6"  long.     It  differs  from  No.  5,  in  its 
bristle-shaped  leaves  and  smaller  (5"  broad)  fls..  and  from  No.   6,  in  its  tufted 
stems.     (Arenaria  MX.,  nee  Ell.) 

10.  SAGINA,  L.  PEARLWORT.  (Lat.  sagina,  food  or  nourishment ; 
badly  applied  to  these  minute  plants.)  Sepals,  styles  and  petals  4  or 
5,  the  latter  entire,  often  0  ;  stamens  as  many  or  twice  as  many  as  the 
sepals ;  capsule  4  or  5-valved,  many-seeded. — Diminutive,  spreading 
herbs,  with  narrow  leaves  and  small,  white  flowers. 

1  S.  procumbens  L.  Procumbent,  glabrous ;  pet.  about  half  as  long  as  the  roundish- 
obtuse  sepals ;  sta.  sep.  and  pet.  4  or  5. — 1±  A  small  weed,  with  slender,  creeping 
stems,  3  or  4'  long,  found  in  damp  places,  R.  Isl.,  N.  Y.  to  S.  Car.  Lvs.  very 
small,  linear,  mucronate-pointed,  connate  or  opposite.  Fls.  white  and  green, 
axillary,  on  peduncles  longer  than  the  leaves.  Jn. 


ORDER  21.— CARYOPHYLLACE^E.  261 

2  S.  er£cta  L.     Ascending,  simple,  glabrous;  pet.  as  long  as  (he  lanceolate,  acute 
sepals ;  sep.  pet.  and  sta.  4. — CD  Dry  places,  Md.     Sts.  smooth  and  glaucous,  2  or 
3'  high,  with  only  one  or  two  fls.     Lvs.  linear,  acute,  4  to  5''  long.     Caps,  ovate, 
as  long  as  the  calyx.     Apr.,  May.  §  Eur.     (Moenchia  quaternella  Fenzl.) 

3  S.  Elliottii  Fenzl.  .  Tufted,  decumbent,  glabrous;    Ivs.   linear-subulate,  very 
acute ;  ped.  much  longer  than  the  leaves ;  fls.  \/ ;  pet.  hardly  as  long  as  the  sep.; 
xta.  10. — (D  Sandy  fields  and  woods  at  the  South,  common.     St  2  to  3'  long. 
Lvs.  6  to  10"  long,  connected  at  base  by  a  membrane.     Fls.  much  smaller  than 
in  No.  1.     Petals  white,  hardly  as  large  as  the  sepals.    Mar..  Apr. 

4  S.  nodosa  FenzL     Tufted,  ascending,  glabrous ;  Ivs.  subulate,  the  upper  very 
short  and  fascicled;  fls.  \/;  pet.  much  longer  than  the  sep.:  sta.  10. — 1£  Lake 
shores,  Can.,  Isle  of  Shoals,  N.  H.  (Bobbins).     Sts.  many  from  one  root,  sub- 
simple,  appearing  knotted  by  the  short,  dense  fascicles  of  leaves. 

5  S.  fontinalis  Short.     Procumbent,  glabrous ;    Ivs.   linear-spatulate ;   petals  0 ; 
sta.  4  to  G. — CD  Ky.   (Short  and  Peter.)    An  herb  of  larger  growth  than  the  other 
species,  on  limestone  rocks.     Sts.  a  foot  long.     Sep.  4  or  5,  obtuse,  longer  than 
the  depressed  capsule.     Apr.,  May. 

6  S.  apetala  L.    Erect  and  pubescent ;  Ivs.  linear-subulate;  ped.  elongated  ascend- 
ing in  fruit ;  sep.  and  sta.  5 ;  pet.  very  minute  or  0. — (1)  Sandy  fields,  N.  J.,  Penn. 
Sts.  numerous,  filiform,  2  to  4'  high.    Sep  acute,  shorter  than  the  caps.     May,  Jn. 

H.  HONKENYA,  Ehrh.  SEA  SANDWORT.  (Named  in  honor  of  J. 
(r.  Honkenya,  a  German  botanist.)  Sepals  5,  united  at  base  ;  petals  5, 
with  short  claws,  entire ;  stamens  10,  inserted  into  the  crenate  edge  of 
a  conspicuous  disk ;  styles  3  to  5  ; Capsule  3  to  5-valved,  many-seeded. — 
T  Herbs  of  the  sea  coast,  with  fleshy  Ivs. 

H.  peploides  DC.  Abundant  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  X.  J.  to  Lab.  Sts.  creep- 
ing, with  upright  branches,  If  long,  forming  dense  tufts.  Lvs.  ovate,  half  clasp- 
ing, acute,  thick,  5  to  7  or  10"  long,  more  than  half  as  wide,  mostly  shorter  than 
the  internodes.  Fls.  small,  axillary,  on  short  peduncles.  Sep.  veiuless,  exceeding 
the  white  petals.  May,  Ju.  (Adenarium,  Raf.) 

12.  SPERGULA,  L.    SPURRY.    (Lat.  spergo,  to  scatter ;  from  the  dis- 
persion of   the  seeds.)      Sepals   5,  nearly  distinct ;    petals  5,  entire ; 
stamens  5  or  10;  styles  5 ;  capsule  ovate,  5-valved,  the  valves  opposite 
the  sepals  ;  seeds  oo  ;  embryo  coiled  into  a  ring. — (T)  Herbs  with  fls.  in 
loose  cymes.     Lvs.  verticillate.     Stipules  scarious. 

S.  arvensis  L.  •  Lvs.  linear-subulate ;  ped.  reflexed  in  fruit ;  sds.  reniform,  angu- 
lar, rough. — A  weed  in  cultivated  grounds,  Can.  to  Ga.  Rt.  small.  St  round, 
branched,  with  swelling  joints,  beset  with  copious  whorled  Ivs.,  somewhat  downy 
and  viscid.  Two  minute  stipules  under  each  whorl.  Cyme  forked,  the  terminal 
(central)  peduncles  bending  down  as  the  fruit  ripens.  Petals  white,  longer  than 
the  calyx,  capsule  twice  as  long.  Sds.  many,  with  a  membranous  margin. 
May— Aug.  §  Eur. 

13.  SPERGULARIA,  Pers.      RED  SAXDWORT.     Sepals  &;    petals  5, 
entire;  stamen  2  to  10;  styles  and  valves  of  the  capsule  3    (rarely  5, 
and  then  alternate  with  the  sepals) ;  seeds  oo  ;  embryo  curved. — (I)  (|; 
Low,  spreading  and  slender-leaved,  with  red  or  rose-colored  fls.     Stip. 
scarious. 

S.  rtibra  Pers.  St.  decumbent,  much  branched ;  Ivs.  linear,  slightly  mucronate ; 
stip.  ovate,  membraneous,  cleft ;  sep.  lanceolate,  with  scarious  margins ;  sds.  com- 
pressed, angular,  roughish. — Sandy  fields,  Can.  to  Flor.,  near  the  sea  coast.  £t.-\ 
a  few  inches  in  length,  slender,  smooth,  spreading  on  the  ground,  with  small  nar- 
row Ivs.,  and  dry,  sheathing  stip.  Fls.  small,  on  hairy  stalks.  May — Oct 
(Arenaria  rubra  L.) 

/?.  3IARIXA.  L.     Lvs.  fleshy,  usually  much  longer  than  the  internodes,  not  mu- 
cronate. seeds  marginless. — In  salt  marshes. 


262  OEDEB  21.— CARYOPHYLLACEJS. 

14.  POLYCARPQN,  L.     ALL-SEED.     (Gr.  Tro/U;^  many,  leapfrog,  fruit. 
The  capsules  are  numerous.)     Sepals  5,  ovate,  carinate,  scarious-edged  ; 
capsule  3-valved,  many-seeded. — (T)  Lvs.  opposite  and  quaternate  on  the 
low  spreading  branches. 

P.  tetraphyllum  L.  Lvs.  spatulate  or  oval,  tapering  to  a  petiole,  some  of  them 
in  whorls  of  4 ;  stam.  3. — Around  Charleston,  S.  Car.  A  low,  much  branched 
plant,  sts.  3  to  G'  high.  Lvs.  2  to  5"  long.  Stip.  several  at  each  joint,  ovate- 
lanceolate,  membraneous.  Fls.  small,  in  dense  cyrnes.  Pet.  much  shorter  than 
sep.,  notched,  white.  May,  Jn.  §  Eur. 

15.  STIPULICIDA,  Michx.     (Lat.  stipula,  ccedo  ;  the  stipules  being 
much  cleft.)     Sepals  oblong,  with  broad,  scarious  margins  ;  petals  5,  as 
long  as  the  sepals,  entire ;  stigmas  3,  subsessile ;  capsule  subglobous, 
3-valved,  few-seeded. — (D   A  slender,  tufted,   dichotomously  branched 
herb,  almost  leafless,  with  the  small  fls.  in  terminal  cymules. 

S.  setacea  MX.  In  dry,  sandy  soils,  Ga.  (Feay,  Mettauer)  and  Fla.  (Chapman). 
Sts.  many  from  one  root,  glabrous,  6  to  10'  high,  each  several  times  forked,  slen- 
der, the  branches  almost  setaceous.  Root  Ivs.  roundish-obovate,  narrowed  to  a 
petiole,  1"  diam.  Joints  distant,  each  marked  by  a  fringe  of  leaves  and  stipules 
2"  long.  Fls.  sessile,  4  to  6  together,  green  and  white,  at  length  reddish.  May. 

16.  PARONf  CHIA,  Tourn.     NAILWORT.     (Gr.  Trapa,  with,  <5w£  the 
nail ;  i.  e.,  the  whitlow  ;  supposed  cure  for.)     Sepals  5,  linear-oblong, 
connivent,  slightly  hooded  and  mucronate  or  awned  near  the  apex; 
petals  or  sterile  filaments  very  narrow  and  scale-like  or  none  ;  stam.  2, 
3,  or  5  ;  stigmas  2  ;  with  the  styles  more  or  less  united  into  1 ;  utricle 
1-seeded,  not  exceeding  the  calyx. — Low  herbs  dichotomously  branched, 
with  scarious,  silvery  stipules,  and  at  least  the  lower  Ivs.  opposite. 

§  PARONYCIIIA.    Sepals  evidently  awned  at  apes.    Lvs.  linear  and  subulate Nos.  1,  2 

§  ANYCHIA  (Mx.  partly).    Sep.  merely  mucronate  at  apex.    Lvs.  lanceolate  to  oval.(*) 

*  Stems  procumbent,  diffuse  on  the  ground.    Stamens  5 Nos.  3,  4 

*  Stems  erect,  with  diffusely  ascending  branches.    Stamens  2  or  3. . .Nos.  5,  G 

1  P.  dichotoma  Nutt.      Glabrous,  densely  branched ;    Ivs.  acerose,  mucronate  ; 
bracts  like  the  leaves;  cymes  fastigiate,  with  no  central  flower;  sep.  3-veined,  cus- 
pidate.— 2J.  Rocks  (Harper's  Ferry),  Va.,  and  Car.  to  Ark.,  rare.     Densely  matted 
and  branched,  the  flowering  stems  G  to  12'  high.     Lvs.  crowded,  1'  by  ^".     Sty. 
bifid  at  top.     Minute  setse  in  place  of  petals.     Jl. — Nov. 

2  P.  argyrocoma  Nutt.  Pubescent,  tufted,  decumbent;  Ivs.  linear,  acute;  cymes 
glomerate,  terminal ;  fls.  enveloped  in  dry,  silvery  bracts :   sep.  hairy,  1-ve-ined, 
setaceously  cuspidate. — rt\.  "White  Mts.,  N.  H.,  in  the  gorge  behind  the  "Willey 
house  (Chapman)  and  in  the  Allegh.  and  Cumb.  Mts.     Flowering  stems  4  to  10' 
high.    Lvs.  crowded,   6  to    10"  long. — Fls.  concealed  in  the  bracts;  the  cusp 
equaling  the  sepals.    Jl. 

3  P.  herniarioides  Nutt.     Scabrous,  diffusely  branched  ;   Ivs.  oval  or  oblong, 
mucronate;  the  raminal  alternate.     Fls.  sessile  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves;  sep. 
3-veined,  merely  mucronate. — ^  N.  Car.  (Miss  Carpenter)  to  Ga.,  in  sandy  soil. 
A  little   depressed    plant,    spreading   on  the   sand,   with  minute  Ivs.  and  fls. 
Branches  alternate  with  1-sided  branchlets.     Lvs.  3 — 2 — 1"  long,  i  as  wide, 
stip.  shorter.     Fls.  \"  long. 

4  P.   Baldwin!!    Torr.  &   Gr.     Diffusely  branched,  procumbent ;    Ivs.   linear- 
lanceolate,  very  acute,  all  opposite ;  fls.  longer  than  the  setaceous  stipules,  mostty 
terminal,    stalked  ;    stam.  5. — Fla.   (Mettauer),  in  dry  fields.     Sta  more  openly 
branched,   many  from   the  same  root,  covering  a  circular  spot  12 — 20'  diam. 
Lvs.  few,  3 — 8"  long,  \ — 2"  wide,  sessile.     Fls.  a  J  larger  than  in  No.  3.     Oct. 

5  P.    Canadensis.     Stem   erect,  slender,  pubescent,  many  times  forked,  with 
slender  or  capillary  branches  ;   Ivs.   lanceolate,  varying  to  oblanceolate  ;   the 


OEDEE  22.— PORTULACACE^.  263 

cauline  opposite,  the  raminal  alternate";  2  pairs  of  scarious,  subulate  stipules  at 
each  fork,  which  are  shorter  than  the  flower ;  style  none ;  utricle  equaling  the 
greenish  sepals. — Hilly  woods,  Can.  to  Ga.,  W.  to  Ark.  Hight  6 — 10  or  18', 
often  nearly  smooth.  Lvs.  4 — 10''  long,  somewhat  stalked.  Fls.  £"  long,  some- 
what pedicellate.  Seed  globular,  rosin  colored.  Jn. — Aug.  (Queria,  L.  Anychia 
capillacea  Nutt.) 

/?.  PUMILA.  Dwarf,  a  few  inches  (2 — 4')  high,  the  Ivs.  reduced  in  proportion, 
very  pubescent;  stems  short-jointed,  tufted,  fls.  sessile,  glomerate;  style  as 
long  as  the  ovary  (at  least  in  specimens  from  Md.  sent  by  Mr.  H.  Shriver), 

forked  at  apex.     (A.  dichotoma  DC.) 

• 

17.  SIPHONYCHIA,  Torr.  and  Gr.    (Gr.  atywv,  a  tube,  that  is,  Anychia 
with  a  tubular  calyx.)     Sepals  linear,  petaloid  above,  coherent  into  a 
tube  below,  unarmed ;  petals  5  setae  alternate  with  the  stamens ;  style 
filiform,  minutely  bifid ;  utricle  included  in  the  calyx. — (T)  Procumbent, 
diffuse  and  widely  spreading.     Fls.  in  glomerate,  terminal  cymules. 

S.  Americana  Torr.  and  Gr.— S.  Car.  to  Fla.  Sts.  1— 2f  in  length.  Lvs. 
oblanceolate,  much  shorter  than  the  internodes,  12 — 9 — 6"  long,  obtuse.  Bracts, 
like  the  Ivs.,  very  small.  Fls.  very  numerous,  1"  or  more  in  length,  with  hooked 
bristles  below.  Sep.  white  above.  (Herniaria  Nutt.) 

18.  SCLERANTHUS,  L.    KNAWEL.    (Gr.  (JKATjpbg,  hard,  av6os ;  when 
in  fruit  the  floral  envelope  appears  hard  and  dry.)     Sepals  5,  united 
below  into  a  tube  contracted  at  the  orifice;  petals  0;  stamens  10, 
rarely  5  or  2  ;  styles  2,  distinct ;  utricle  very  smooth,  inclosed  in  the 
hardened  calyx  tube. — (J)  A  prostrate,  diffuse  little  weed,  exstipulate. 
S.  anmius  L.    Dry  fields  and  roadsides,  K  Eng.  and  Mid.  States.    Sts.  numerous, 

branching,  decumbent,  short  (3 — 6').  Lvs.  linear,  acute,  short,  opposite,  partially 
united  at  their  bases.  Fls.  very  small,  green,  in  axillary  fascicles.  JL 

19.  MO  L  LUGO,  L.    CARPET-WEED.    Calyx  of  5  sepals,  inferior,  united 
at  base,  colored  inside ;  corolla  0  ;  stamens  5,  sometimes  3  or  10  ;  fila- 
ments setaceous,  shorter  than  and  opposite  to  the  sepals ;  anthers  simple ; 
capsule  3-celled,  3-valved,  many-seeded ;  seeds  reniform. — Lvs.  at  length 
apparently  verticillate,  being  clustered  in  the  axils. 

M.  verticillata  L.  Lvs.  cuneiform,  acute ;  st.  depressed,  branched ;  pedicels 
1 -flowered,  subumbellate  ;  sta.  mostly  but  3. — (D  Dry  places  throughout  X. 
America.  Sts.  slender,  jointed,  branched,  lying  flat  upon  the  ground,  forming  a 
roundish  patch.  At  every  joint  is  a  cluster  of  wedge-shaped  or  spatulate  Ivs.  of 
unequal  size,  usually  5  in  number,  and  a  few  flowers,  eacli  on  a  solitary  Btalk, 
which  is  very  slender,  and  shorter  than  the  petioles.  Fls.  small,  white.  Jl. — Sept. 

ORDER  XXII.  PORTTJLACACEJE.  PURSELANES. 
Herbs  succulent  or  fleshy,  with  entire  leaves,  no  stipules,  and  regular  flowers. 
Sepals  2.  united  at  base,  rarely  3  or  5.  Petals  5,  sometimes  more  or  less  imbricated 
in  aestivation.  Sta.  variable  in  number,  but  opposite  the  petals  when  as  many. 
Oi-a.  superior,  1 -celled.  Sty,  several,  stigmatous  along  the  inner  surface.  Fr.  a 
pyxis,  dehiscing  by  a  lid,  or  a  capsule,  loculicidal,  with  as  many  valves  as  stigmas. 
Seeds  few  or  many,  on  long  funiculi  from  the  base,  or  on  free  central  placenta. 

Genera  27,  species  250,  inhabiting  dry  places  in  every  quarter  of  the  world.    They  possess  no 
remarkable  properties. 

GENERA. 

§  Sepals  5.    Petals  none.    Fruit  a  pyxis ". .  SESUVICM.     ! 

§  Sepals  2.— Stamens  5,  opposite  the  5  petals CLATTOXIA.  2 

—Stamens  7  to  30.— hypogynous,  capsule  3-valved TALIXUM.      .3 

— perigy  mui?.    Pyxis  opening  by  a  lid PORTVLACA.  4 


264  ORDER  22.— PORTULACACE^E. 

1.  SESUVIUM,  L.    SEA  PURSELANE.    Sepals  5,  united  below,  colored 
inside;  petals  0;  stamens  few  or  many,  always  more  than  the  sepals, 
and  inserted  on  them  ;  capsules  (pyxis)  few,  3-celled,  opening   trans- 
versely like  a  lid ;  seeds  oo  minute. — Succulent  sea-side  herbs,  with 
opposite  Ivs.  and  axillary,  solitary  fls. 

S  portulacastrum  Tourn.  Lvs.  linear-spatulate ;  fls.  sessile  or  short-peduncled ; 
stam.  oo- — Sea-coast,  in  sand,  N.  J.  to  Fla.  St.  round,  branching,  smooth,  thick, 
a  foot  or  more  in  length.  Lvs.  obtuse,  tapering  at  base  to  a  petiole,  very  thick 
and  smooth.  Ped.  much  shorter  than  the  leaves.  Sep.  rose-white  inside,  exceed- 
ing the  rose-colored  stamens.  JL,  Nov. 

2.  CLAYTbNIA,  L.    SPRING  BEAUTY.    Fig.  383,  384.    (In  memory 
of  John  Clayton,  one  of  the  earliest  botanists  of  Virginia.)     Sepals  2, 
ovate  or  roundish,  petals  5,  emargined  or  obtuse,  stamens  5,  inserted 
on  the  claws  of  the  petals ;  stigmas  3-cleft ;   capsule  3-valved,  2  to 
5-seeded. — Small,  fleshy,  early  flowering  plants,  arising  from  a  small 
tuber. 

1  C.  Caroliniana  MX.    Los.  ovate-lanceolate;  sep.  and  pet.  obtuse. — U  A  delicate 
little  plant,  common  in  woods  and  rocky  hills,  Can.  to  N.  Car.  "W.  to  the  Miss. 
Rt.  a  compressed,  brown  tuber,  buried  at  a  depth  in  the  ground  equal  to  the 
night  of  the  plant.     Root  Ivs.  very  few  if  any,  spatulate.     St.  weak,  2  to  3'  high, 
with  a  pair  of  opposite  leaves  halfway  up,  which  are  1  to  2'  by  4  to  8",  entire, 
tapering  at  base  into  the  petiole.     Fls.  in  a  terminal  cluster,  white  with  a  tinge 
of  red,  and  beautifully  penciled  with  purple  lines.     Apr.,  May. 

2  C.  Virginica  L.  Lvs.  linear  or  lance-linear;  sep.  rather  acute,  pet.  obovate, 
mostly  emarginate  or  retuse ;  ped.  slender,  nodding. — %  In  low,  moist  grounds, 
Mid.  and  S.  States,  "W.  to  Mo.,  rare  in  N.  Eng.     Tuber  as  large  as  a  hazel  nnt, 
deep  in  the  ground.     St.  6  to  10'  long,  weak,  with  a  pair  of  opposite,  very  narrow 
Ivs.  3  to  5'  long.     Fls.  5 — 10,  rose-colored,  with  deeper  colored  veins,  in  a  ter- 
minal, finally  elongated  raceme.     Apr.,  May. 

3.  TALlNUM,  Adans.     Sepals  2,  ovate,  concave,  deciduous ;  petals 
5,  sessile;  stamens  10  to  20,  inserted  with  the  petals  into  the  torus  ; 
style  trifid ;  capsule  subglobous,  3-valved,  many -seeded. 

T.  teretifolium  L.  St.  simple  or  branched,  short  and  thick;  Ivs.  linear, 
crowded  at  the  summit  of  the  stem,  on  short  branches ;  ped.  elongated ;  fls.  in  a 
dichotomous  cyme. — If.  An  interesting  plant  on  rocks,  Penn.  to  Ga.  and  west- 
ward. Rhizome  or  perennial  stem  firm  and  fleshy,  with  fibrous  roots.  Branches 
1  to  3'  long.  Lvs.  1  to  2'  long,  incurved,  fleshy.  Bracts  ovate-lanceolate,  min- 
ute. Ped.  5  to  8'  high,  very  straight,  slender,  and  smooth.  Fls.  8"  broad, 
purple,  ephemeral.,  Stam.  about  20.  Caps,  globular,  with  35  seeds.  Jn., 
Aug. 

4.  PQRTULACA,  Tourn.     PURSELANE.    Sepals  2,  the  upper  portion 
deciduous ;  petals  5  (4  to  6),  equal ;  stamens  8  to  20 ;  styles  3  to  6- 
cleft  or  parted ;  pyxis  subglobous,  dehiscing  near  the  middle,  many- 
seeded. — Low,  herbaceous,  fleshy.     Fls.  expanding  only  in  sunshine. 

1  P.  oleracea  L.  Lvs.  cuneate ;  fls.  sessile. — CD  A  prostrate,  fleshy  weed,  more 
common  in  our  gardens  than  desirable.  St.  thick  and  succulent,  much  branched 
and  spreading,  smooth.  Lvs.  fleshy,  sessile,  rounded  at  the  end.  Fls.  yellow. 
The  herbage  of  the  plant  is  of  a  reddish-green  color.  Sometimes  used  as  a  pot- 
herb. Jn.,  Aug.  §. 

2  P.  grandiflora  Hook.  Sts.  ascending,  much  branched,  branches  suberect, 
enlarged  upwards ;  Ivs.  linear,  acute,  the  axils  villous,  with  long,  woolly  hairs ; 
fls.  terminal,  sessile,  1  or  few  together,  surrounded  by  an  irregular  circle  of  leaves 


• 


ORDER  24.— MALVACEAE.  265 

and  dense  tufts  of  wool ;  pet.  obovate ;  stam.  about  15. — Ij.  A  very  delicate  plant, 
with  purpl/s  stems  and  bright  purple  fls.  !£'  diam. 

P.  Gilliesii  Hook,  with  short,  cylindrical,  blunt  Ivs.,  somewhat  flattened, 
ascending,  branched  stems,  and  large,  deep  purple  fls.,  is  also  popular  in  house 
cultivation.  These  species  are  natives  of  S.  America,  f 

ORDER  XXIIL     MESEMBRYACE^E.     ICE-PLANTS. 

Plants  fleshy,  of  singular  and  various  form,  yet  beautiful,  with  opposite,  fleshy 
leaves.  Fls.  solitary,  axillary  and  terminal,  remarkable  for  their  profusion,  brilliant, 
and  of  long  duration.  Sepals  definite ;  petals  numerous,  colored,  in  many  rows. 
Sta.  indefinite,  distinct,  arising  from  the  calyx  (perigynous).  Ova.  inferior  or  nearly 
superior,  many-celled.  Stigmas  numerous.  Gaps,  many-celled,  opening  in  a  stel- 
late manner  at  the  apex,  or  one-celled.  Sds.  more  commonly  indefinite,  attached  to 
the  inner  angle  of  the  cells,  or  to  a  free  central  placentas. 

Genera  5,  species  375,  chiefly  natives  of  the  arid,  sandy  plains  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
The  species  are  much  cultivated  for  ornament.  Lewisiu  redivivu  of  Oregon,  called  Spajtlum,  is 
highly  valued  for  its  farinaceous,  nutritive  roots. 

MESEMBRYANTHEMUM,  L.  (Gr.  pemipppia,  raid-day,  <5i/0o?; 
flowers  expanding  at  raid-day.)  Calyx  5-cleft ;  petals  very  numerous, 
linear ;  stamens  GO,  perigynous ;  capsule  inferior,  fleshy,  turbinate  ; 
seeds  numerous,  either  axile  or  parietal. 

1  M.  crystallimim  L.    ICE-PLANT.    Biennial,  procumbent ;  Ivs.  large,  ovate, 
acute,  wavy,  frosted,  3-veined  beneath. — A  popular  house  plant,  from  Greece.     It 
has  a  creeping  stem,  If  or  more  in  length,  and  with  the  leaves  is  covered  over 
with  frost-like,  warty  protuberances,  giving  the  plant  a  very  singular  aspect. 
Fls.  white,  appearing  all  summer,  f . 

2  M.  graiidiflorum  L.     Perennial,  procumbent,  spreading;    Ivs.  petiolate. 
opposite,  cordate-ovate ;  cal.  4-cleft,  2-horned. — ^4  An  interesting  plant  in  house 
cultivation,  from  Cape  Good  Hope.     The  whole  plant  fleshy  and  succulent,  like 
others  of  its  kind.    Fls.  pink-colored.     Calyx  thick,  green,  the  horns  opposite. 
Caps,  translucent,  marked  at  summit  with  cruciform  lines,  f. 

ORDER  XXIV.     MALVACEAE.     MALLOWS. 

Herbs  or  shrubs  with  alternate,  stipulate  Ivs.  and  regular  flowers,  with  5  sepals 
united  at  base,  valvate  in  the  bud,  often  subtended  by  an  involucel ;  5  petals  hypo- 
gynous,  convolute  in  the  bud,  with  the  stamens  GO,  monadelphous,  hypogynous, 
and  1-celled,  reniform  anthers.  Pistils  several,  distinct  or  united,  and  stigmas  vari- 
ous. Fruit  a  several-celled  capsule,  or  a  collection  of  1 -seeded  indehiscent  carpels. 
Seeds  with  little  or  no  albumen,  and  a  curved  embryo.  (Fig.  252.  352.) 

Genera  40,  species  1000,  abundant  in  the  tropics,  frequent  in  the  temperate  zones,  entirely 
wanting  in  the  frigid.  Cotton,  one  of  the  most  important  products  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  is 
the  coma  of  the  seeds  (§  585)  of  Gossypium.  Many  of  the  Malvaceae  are  handsome  flowering 
plants,  and  are  often  cultivated  as  such. 

Properties.— Generally  abounding  in  mucilage,  and  destitute  of  any  deleterious  qualities. 

GENERA. 

§  Calyx  naked,  i.  e.,  having  no  involucel.  (b) 
§  Calyx  iavolucelate. — Carpels  (and  styles)  more  than  5.  (a) 
—Carpels  3  to  5  only,— one-seeded,  (c) 

— 3 —  00-seeded.  (d) 

a  Involucel  of  6  to  9  bractlets.     Carpels  1-seeded ALTH.EA.         1 

a  Involucel  of  3  distinct  bractlets.     Carpels  1-seeded MALVA.  2 

a  Involucel  of  3  united  bractlets.     Carpels  1-seeded LAVATEKA.     3 

a  Involucel  of  3  distinct  bractlets.     Carpels  2-seeded MODIOLA..        4 


266  ORDER  24.— MALVACEAE. 

b  Flowers  dioecious.    Stigmas  10,  linear NAP-SA.  5 

b  Flowers  perfect.    Carpels  5  or  more,  1-seeded SIDA.  G 

b  Flowers  perfect.    Carpels  5  or  many,  3  to  9-seeded ABITTILOX.  7 

C  Stigmas  10.    Carpels  5,  baccate,  united MALVAVISCITS. 

C  Stigmas  10.    Carpels  5,  dry,  distinct PAVONIA. 

C  Stigmas  5.    Carpels  5,  dry,  united  into  a  pod -, KOSTELETZKYA. 

d  Involucre  of  many  bractlets.    Calyx  regular HIBISCUS. 

d  Involucre  of  many  bractlets.    Calyx  split  on  one  side ABELMOSCHUS. 

d  Involucre  of  8  incisely  toothed  bractlets GOSSYPIUM. 

1.  ALTH>EA,  L.    MARSH  MALLOW.    (Gr.  d/l0w,  to  cure  ;  the  mucil- 
aginous root  is  highly  esteemed  in  medicine).    Calyx  surrounded  at  base 
by  a  6  to  9-cleft  involucel ;  styles  oo,  with  linear  stigmas ;  carpels  GO, 
1-seeded,  indehiscent,  arranged  circularly,  and   at  maturity  separating 
from  the  axis. 

1  A.  officinalis  L.  Lvs.  soft-downy  on  both  sides,  cordate-ovate,  dentate,  some- 
what 3-lobed;  ped.  much  shorter  than  the  leaves,  axillary,  many-flowered. — If.  Me. 
to  N.  Y.,  borders  of  salt  marshes.  St.  3f  high,  erect,  firm,  covered  with  thick 
woolly  down,  with  alternate,  velvet-like  leaves.  Fls.  large,  axillary  and  terminal, 
pale  purple.  The  root  as  well  as  the  other  parts  of  the  plants,  abounds  in  muci- 
lage, and  in  medicine  is  oftou  used  as  an  emollient.  Sept.:}:  §  Eur. 

2  A.  rosea  Cav.     HOLLYHOCK.     St.  erect,  hairy ;  Ivs.  cordate,  5  to  1-angkd, 
rugous ;  fls.  axillary,  sessile. — ®   A  tall  plant,  very  commonly  cultivated  iu  gar- 
dans.    Numerous  varieties  have  been  noticed,  with  single,  double,  and  semi-double- 
flowers,  of  various  shades  of  color,  as  white,  rose-colored,  flesh-colored,  dark  red. 
and  even  a  purplish  black,  purple,  yellow,  stra w-color,  etc.  f     China?     (Alcea 
rosea  L.) 

3  A.  ficifolia  Cav.     FIG-LEAVED  HOLLYHOCK.     St.  erect,  hairy ;  Ivs.  palmate, 
7-lobed  beyond  the  middle,  lobes  oblong,  obtuse,  angular-toothed. — (3)  St.  tall  as 
the  above.     Fls.  orange-colored,  f    Levant.     (Alcea  ficifolia  L.) 

2.  MALVA,  L.    MALLOW.    (Gr.  jtm/la/^?/,  soft ;  on  account  of  the  soft 
mucilaginous  properties.)     Calyx  5 -cleft,  the  involucel  3-leaved  ;  petals 
obcordate  or  truncate ;    styles    oo,  with  linear  stigmas ;    carpels    oo, 
1-celled,  1-seeded,  indehiscent,  arranged  circularly,  and  at  maturity  sep- 
arating from  the  axis. 

§  Leaves  orbicular,  with  5  to  7  angular  lobes.     Carpels  obtuse Nos.  1 — 3 

§  Leaves  triangular-deltoid,  scabrous.     Carpels  acute No.  4 

§  Leaves  palmately  5  to  T-parted Nos.  5,  6 

1  M.  rotundifolia  L.     Low  MALLOW.      St.  prostrate;   Ivs.  roundish,  cordate, 
obtusely  5-lobed ;  ped.  in  fruit  refiexed  ;  cor.  (pale)  twice  as  long  as  the  calyx. — 
1J.  Common  in  cultivated  grounds.     Sts.  numerous,  a  foot  or  more  long.     Lvs. 
somewhat  reniform,  crenate,  with  5  to  7  shallow  lobes,  and  on  long,  hairy  stalks. 
Ped.  axillary,  aggregate.      Petals  pale  pink,  deeply  notched.     Fr.  depressed-glob- 
ous,  composed  of  the  numerous  carpels  arranged  circularly,  not  wrinkled.     The 
child  sportively  calls  them  cheeses.    Jn. — Oct.     §  Eur. 

2  M.  sylvestris  L.     HIGH  MALLOW.     St.  erect ;  Ivs.  5  to  7-lobed,  lobes  of  the 
upper  Ivs.  rather  acute ;  carp,  very  rugous ;  pet  (purple)  3  times  longer  than  sep. — 
A  popular  garden  flower  of  the  easiest  culture,  often  springing  up  spontaneously 
in  fields  and  road-sides,  Mid.  and  "W.  States.     Height  3f.     Fls.  reddish-purple. 
with  veins  of  a  darker  hue.     The  whole  plant,  especially  the  root,  abounds  in 
mucilage.     Jn. — Oct.     §  Eur. 

3  M.    crispa    L.     St.  erect ;    Ivs.  angular-lobed,    dentate,  crisped,   smooth ;    fls. 
(white)  axillary,  sessile. — CD  A  tall,  straight,  simple,  erect  plant  from  Syria.     Gar- 
dens, almost  naturalized.     St.  5  to  6f  high.     Lvs.  large,  roundish,  margins  abun- 
dantly crisped  and  curled.     Fls.  white,  not  conspicuous.     Jn. — Aug.  f     §  Eur. 

4  M.    triangulata   Leav.     St.   erect,   hirsute ;    Ivs.  strigous,  triangular-deltoid, 
lower  ones,  cordate,  all  undivided,   coarsely  crenate ;  panicle  terminal,  diffuse, 
many-flowered;  petals  purple;  carp.  10  to  15,   slightly  beaked. — Prairies  and 


ORDER  24— MALVACEAE.  267 

bottoms,  "Wis.,  111.  to  Ark.  A  handsome  but  rather  rough  species,  2  to  3f  high. 
Root  fasiform.  Lvs.  2  to  3'  by  1  to  2',  on  long,  hairy  petioles,  thick.  Fls.  nearly 
as  large  (!£'  diam.)  as  those  of  M.  sylvestris.  Beak  of  the  carpels  horizontal,  a 
mere  angle.  JL,  Aug.  (Callirrhoe  Gray.  M.  Houghtonii,  1st  ed.) 
5  M.  papaver  Cav.  POPPY  MALLOW.  Lvs.  palmately  3  to  5-parted,  on  long 
petioles,  segments  oblong  or  linear,  entire  or  toothed ;  fls.  on  very  long  peduncles. — 
'1\.  G-a.,  Fla.  to  La.  A  curious  species,  strongly  reminding  one  of  the  poppy 
(Papaver  Rheas)  in  the  form  and  size  of  the  bright  red  or  purple  fls.,  and  the  very 
long  (5  to  8'),  upright  peduncles.  Sts.  branched  from  the  base,  scabrous,  ascend- 
ing 12  to  18'.  Lvs.  variable,  the  lobes  usually  quite  narrow  and  open,  2  to  3' 
long.  Petals  erose-crenulate.  Involucel  (rarely  wanting)  shorter  than  the  calyx. 
May — Aug.  (Nuttallia,  Graham.) 

6  M.  moschata  L.  MUSK  MALLOW.  St.  erect;  radical  Ivs.  reniform,  incised, 
cauline  ones  5-parted;  the  segments  linear-cuneiform,  incisely  lobed ;  peduncles 
.shorter  than  the  leaves. — Native  of  Britain.  St.  2f  high,  branched.  Fls.  large 
and  handsome,  rose-colored.  The  whole  herb  gives  out  a  musk-like  odor  in 
favorable  weather.  Jl.  f 

3.  LAVATERA,  L.  (Named  in  honor  of  the  two  Lavaters,  physicians 
of  Zurich.)    Calyx  subtended  by  an  involucel  of  3  united  bracteoles  ; 
stigmas  oo,  filiform ;  carpels  oo,  4-celled,  1-seeded,  indehiscent,  arranged 
circularly  as  in  Malva. 

1  L.  arborea   L.     TREE   MALLOW.     Lvs.   7-angled,  downy,   plicate  ;    ped. 
1-flowered,  clustered  in  fhe  axils,  much  shorter  than  the  petiole. — (J2)  A  splendid 
plant  for  borders  or  shrubberies,  from  Europe.     Hight  about  6f.     Fls.  purple. 
Sept.,  Oct.  f 

2  L.  Thuringiaca  L.     Lvs.  somewhat  downy;  lower  ones  angular,   upper 
3-lobed,  the  middle  lobe  largest;  ped.  solitary  in  each  axil.  — If.  From  Germany. 
Hight  4f     Fls.  light-blue.     Sept. 

3  L.  triloba  "Willd.  St.  and  Ivs  downy;  Ivs.  subcordate,  roundish,  obscurely 
3-lobed  above,  crenate;  ped.  solitary,  aggregated  at  topV  of  stem;  seps.  acu- 
minate, slightly  larger  than  invol. — Gardens.  Hight  2 — 3f.  Fls.  light  purple. 
Jn.,  JL  f  Spain. 

4.  MODIOLA,  Moench.    (Lat.  modiolus,  a  certain  measure  ;  from  the 
fancied  resemblance  of  the  fruit  to  a  basket.)     Calyx  5-cleft,  with  an 
involucel  of  3  bractlets  at  base;  stigmas  15 — 20,  capitate;    carpels 
same  number,  2-seecled,  transversely  2-celled,  2-valved.— -®©  Prostrate, 
with  cleft  Ivs.  and  small  flowers. 

M.  multifida  Mcench.  St.  rooting  at  the  joints ;  Ivs.  roundish,  cordate. 
3 — 5  cleft,  segm.  cut-toothed;  ped.  soon  longer  than  the  petioles. — Car.,  Ga.,  and 
Fla.  Diffusely  spreading  1— 2f.  thinly  hirsute.  Lvs.  about  1'  broad,  on  petioles 
of  similar  length.  Fls.  o — G';  diam.,  purplish  red,  opening  only  in  sunshine  at 
midday.  Carp,  each  opening  by  2  valves,  the  valves  each  tipped  with  a  slender 
beak.  May— JL 

5.  NAP^EA,  Clayt.     (Gr.  vdr>r\,  a  wooded  valley  between  mountains, 
where  Clayton  discovered  the  plant.)    Involucel  none  ;  calyx  5-toothed  ; 
fls.   dio3cious ;    styles  6 — 8,  with   filiform   stigmas ;    carpels   as  many, 
1-seeded,   indehiscent,    beakless,    circularly  arranged. —  2£     Tall,  with 
large,  palmately  divided  Ivs.  and  small  white  fls.  in  leafy  panicles. 

N.  dioica  L.  A  rare  plant,  in  rocky  valleys  and  deep  shades,  Penn.,  Ya.,  to  111. 
Sts.  slender,  nearly  smooth,  4 — 6f  high,  supported  by  other  plants.  Lvs.  rather 
rough,  7 — 11 -parted,  the  segm.  linear-lanceolate,  coarsely  toothed,  3 — 6'  long, 
acuminate,  upper  Ivs.  5-parted,  much  smaller.  Fls.  4 — 5"  diam.  Petals  twice 
longer  than  the  calyx.  Aug.  (Sida  dioica  Cav.) 


268  ORDEE  24.— MALVACEAE. 

6.  SIDA,  L.  Calyx  5-cleft,  without  an  involucel ;  fls.  perfect ;  styles 
5  or  more,  with  capitate  stigmas ;  ovary  5  to  many-celled ;  capsule  of 
5  or  more  1 -seeded  carpels ;  radicle  superior. 

Leaves  palmately  parted.    Fls.  rose-white.     Carpels,  beaked .' Nos.  1,  2 

Leaves  undivided.    Fls.  yellow. — Carpels  5 No  3 

—Carpels  8—12 .Nos.  4— C 

1  S.  Napaea  Cav.      Nearly  glabrous;  Ivs.  palmately  5-lobed,  lobes  oblong,  acu- 
minate, coarsely-toothed;   ped.  many-flowered ;   carpels   10,  acuminate-beaked. — 
14  In  rocky  woods,  Penn.  and  Va.  (rare,  more  common  in  gardens).     Sts.  2 — if 
high.     Lobes  of  the  Ivs.  2 — 3'  long.     Fls.  white,  twice  larger  (7 — 9"  broad)  than 
in  Napsea  dioica.     Petals  obovate,  twice  longer  than  the  calyx.     Jl.  f     (Napaea 
laevis  and.  hermaphrodita  L.) 

2  S.  alcaeoides  MX.     Strigous-pubescent ;  Ivs.  palmately  5 — 7 -parted,  the  seg- 
ments laciniate ;  fls.  corymbed,  terminal;  carp.  10,  acute. — 1[-  In  barren  oaklands, 
Tenn.,  Ky.     Sts.  1 — 2f  high.     Corymbs  3 — 6-flowered.      Fls.  nearly  as  largo  as 
those  of  the  musk  mallow,  to  which  plant  this  bears  a  general  resemblance. 
(Callirrhoe  alcasoides  Gray.) 

3  S.  spinosa  L.     St.  rigid,  branched,  minutely  pubescent,  Ivs.  ovate-lanceolate, 
serrate,  with  a  spinous  tubercle  at  the  base  of  the  petiole ;  stip.  setaceous,  shorter 
than  the  petioles  or  axillary  peduncles ;  carp,  birostrate. — (§)  Sandy  fields  and 
roadsides,  Mid.,  S.  and  W.  States.     Plant  bushy,  8 — 16'  high.     Lvs.  9 — 15"  long, 
i  as  wide,  mostly  obtuse  at  each  end.     Petals  yellow,  obovate,  of  short  duration. 
Carp.  5.    JL,  Aug. 

4  S.  hispida  Ph.      Hispid-pubescent;   Ivs.   lanceolate,   and   rhombic-lanceolate, 
dentate-serrate ;    stip.   subulate,  .hispid,  longer  than  the  petioles  or  axillary, 
solitary  or  clustered   peduncles;    carpels   2-horned,   10 — 12. — !(.  Sandy   soils, 
S.  Car.,  Ga.  (Feay).     Sts.  much  branched,  12 — 18'  high.     Petioles  2 — 3"  long, 
the  peduncles  rather  longer,  jointless.     Petals  yellow,  a  little  exceeding  the 
calyx.     On  the  young  stems  the  Ivs.  are  rhomboidal.     JL.  Aug. 

5  S.  Elliottii  Ton*  &  Gr.     Lvs.  linear-oblong  and  linear,  denticulate,  obtuso  at 
base;  ped.  1-flowered,  a  little  longer  than  the  very  short  (2 — 5")  petioles. — 
Tj.  Sandy  plains,  S.  Car.  to  Fla.     St.  slender  and  widely  branched,  2 — 5f  high. 
Lvs.  1 — 3'  long,  varying  from  narrowly  linear  to  oblong  (1 — 5"  wide).     Fls.  1' 
broad,  orange-yellow,  nearly  solitary  in  the  axils.     Petals  emarginate.     Carp, 
about  10.     May — Aug. 

6  S.  rkombifolia  L.     Lvs.  rhombic-oblong,  serrate,  cuneate  and  entire  at  base; 
ped.  much  longer  than  the  petioles,  jointed  just  below  the  flower ;  caps.  2-beaked. 
— Sandy  soil,  S.  Car.  to  Fla.      St.  1  to  2f  high,  minutely  downy.      Lvs.  1  to  2' 
long,  rather  obtuse  at  apex.      Fls.  yellow,  7  to  9"  broad,  the  stalks  1  to  2'  long. 
Cal.  angular,  with  broad,  cuspidate  sepals.     May — JL 

7.  ABUTILON,  Dill.     INDIAN  MALLOW.     Calyx  5-cleft,  without  an 
involucel,  often  angular ;  styles  5  to  20,  with  capitate  stigmas ;  carpels 
as  many,  arranged  circularly,  each  1-celled,  3  to  6-seeded,  and  opening 
by  2  valves. 

1  A.  Avicennse.  Lvs.  roundish,  cordate,  acuminate,  dentate,  velvety-tomentous ; 
ped.  shorter  than  the  petiole,  solitary;  carp,  about  15,  3-seeded,  inflated,  truncate, 
2-beaked. — CD  Native  in  both  Indias  and  naturalized  in  most  of  the  States,  in- 
habiting waste  places,  &c.  St.  branched,  3  to  4f  high.  Lvs.  4  to  6'  diam., 
deeply  cordate  at  base,  abruptly  acuminate  at  apex,  very  soft  and  velvety  at  sur- 
face. Fls.  yellow,  near  1'  broad.  Jl.  § 

2  A.  striatum  Dick.  Shrub,  with  5-lobed,  long-stalked  Ivs.,  the  lobes  acuminate, 
dentate ;  peduncles  long,  nodding,  with  a  handsome  bell-shaped  flower,  the  column 
exserted. — An  elegant  green-house  shrub,  flowering  at  all  seasons.  Petals 
orange-color,  with  conspicuous  purple  striae,  f  Brazil. 

8.  MALVAVISCUS,  Dill.    GLUE  MALLOW.     (Lat.  malva,  mallows,  vis- 
CMS,  glue.)    Calyx  5-cleft,  subtended  by  an  involucre  of  many  bractlets  ; 


ORDEB  24.— MALVAUE^:.  269 

petals  erect,  convolute ;  styles  10,  with  capitate  stigmas,  the  inner 
longer;  carpels  5,  baccate,  1-seeded,  forming  a  fleshy  fruit. — Half 
shrubby  plants,  with  showy,  red  flowers. 

1  M.  Drummondii  Torr.  &  Gr.      Tall,  minutely  tomentous ;  Ivs.  roundish,  cor- 
date, angularly-3-lobed,  crenate ;  ped.  axillary,  solitary,  shorter  than  the  petioles ; 
fls.  erect ;  bracteoles  8,  Hnear-spatulate. — Texas,     Naturalized  about  X.  Orleans 
(Hale).      St.  round,  branched,  3  to  4f  high.      Lvs.  3  to  4'  diam.,  the  petioles 
half  as  long.      Fls.  bell-shaped,  scarlet      Column  slender,  twice  longer  than  the 
corolla,  f  • 

2  M.  Floridana,  with  leaves  ovate-cordate,  and  fls.  pendulous,  scarlet,  grows 
in  S.  Fla.  and  sometimes  in  the  green-houso . 

3  M.  arborea,  with  Ivs.  3  to  5-lobed,  acuminate,  serrate,  and  scarlet  fls., 
from  Jamaica,  is  cultivated  often  in  the  green- house;  and  also,  M.  mollis, 
velvety,  3-lobed,  sub-entire  Ivs. 

9.  PAVONIA,  Cav.     (The  Latin  name  of  the  peacock,  suggested  by 
the  colors.)      Calyx  5-sepaled,  surrounded  at  the  base  with  an  involuccl 
of  5 — 15  bractlets;  petals  roundish,  obtuse;  stigmas  10,  linear;  car- 
pels 5,  capsular,  2-valved,  1-seeded. 

P.  Jonesii  Feay.  Stem  shrubby,  much  branched ;  Ivs,  many,  small,  sagittate- 
oblong,  obtuse,  with  coarse,  obtuse  teeth,  the  lower  surface  hoary-tomentous, 
veins  prominent ;  upper  surface  scabrous ;  sepals  ovate,  3-veined,  downy,  acumi- 
minate,  as  long  as  the  5  oval,  acute  bractlets;  carpels  blunt,  rugous,  scarcely 
dehiscent — Liberty  Co.,  Ga,  (Mr.  W.  Jones).  Stem  4 — 5f  high.  Lvs.  1£ — 2 
long,  the  floral  much  smaller.  Fls.  1^'  diam.,  rose- while,  with  a  deep  purple 
center,  (Malva  Lecontii  Buckley?) 

10.  KOSTELETZKYA,  Presl.     (In  honor  of  Kosteletzky,  a  German 
botanist.)    Calyx,  involucel,  styles,  etc.,  as  in  Hibiscus.    Fruit  a  5-celled, 
depressed  capsule,  with  a  single  seed  in  each  cell. 

K.  Virginica  Presl.  Lvs.  acuminate,  cordate,  ovate,  serrate,  dentate,  upper  and 
lower  ones  undivided,  middle  ones  3-lobed ;  ped.  axillary,  and  in  terminal  racemes  ; 
fls.  nodding,  pistils  declinate. — n4  Marshes  near  the  sea,  L,  IsL  to  Ga.  and  La. 
(Hale).  The  whole  plant  scabrous,  tomentous,  about  3f  high.  Lvs.  2  to  2£'  by 
!£',  long-pointed,  some  of  them  somewhat  3-lobed.  Fls.  2£'  diam.,  red  or  rose- 
color.  Column  slender,  as  long  as  the  petals.  Caps,  hispid,  acute-angled.  Aug. 
(Hibiscus  Virg.  L.  and  Ed.  2d.) 

11.  HIBISCUS,  L.    Calyx  5-cleft,  subtended  by  an  involucel  of  many 
bractlets,  column  long  with  the  stamens  lateral  and  the  5  stigmas  capi- 
tate ;  fr.  a  o-celled  capsule,  loculicidal,  the  valves  bearing  the  partitions 
in  the  middle  ;  seeds  3  or  many  in  each  cell. — Herbs  or  shrubs.     Fls.. 
large  and  showy. 

*  Calyx,  Ac.,  hispid.    Leaves  palmately  divided Nos.  1,  2 

*  Calyx,  &c.,  tomentous.    Lvs.  undivided,  angularly  lobed Nos.  3,  4 

*  Calyx,  &c.,  glabrous. — Leaves  deeply  lobed  or  parted Nos.  5,  6 

—Leaves  undivided,  slightly  lobed Nos.  7,  8 

1  H.  aculeatus  "Walt.    Retrorsely  scabrous ;  Ivs.  palmately  3  to  5-lobed,  repand- 
toothed,  bractlets  of  the  involucel  linear,  forked  at  the  end;  sep.  red- veined,  acumi- 
nate, very  hispid. — Damp  soils,  S.  Car.  to  Fla.  and  La.     Tall  (3 — 5f)  and  very 
rough.    Lvs.  2  to  3'  broad,  as  long  as  their  stalks.     Fed.  very  short  (3  to  4"), 
jointed  at  base.      Cor.  4V  broad,  pale  sulphur-yellow,  purple   in  the  center. 
Styles  J  longer  than  the  stamens.     Jn. — Sept.     (H.  scabra  MX.) 

2  H.  Triorram   L.      FLOWER  OF  AN  HOUR,  BLADDER  KETMIA.      Hispid,  with 
scattered  hairs;  Ivs.  deeply  3-parted,  segm.  lanceolate,  middle  one  very  long,  all 
sinuate-lobed,  lower  Ivs.  angular-lobed ;  cal.  inflated,  membranous,  veined ;  bract- 
lets  subulate,   entire. — 'J)  A  beautiful   flower,  escaped  from  gardens  and  barely 
naturalized,  branching,  1  to  2f  high.      Fls.  large,  numerous,  but  soon  withering. 
Petals  of  a  rich,  chlorine  yellow,  the  base  of  a  deep  brown,  f     §  Italy. 


270  ORDER  24.— MALVACEAE. 

3  H.  Moschefttos  L.     MARSH  HIBISCUS.     Simple,  erect,  hoary-tomentous ;  Ivs. 
ovate,  obtusely  dentate,  some  of  them  3-lobed,  nearly  smooth  above ;  ped.  long, 
axillary,  or  confluent  with  the  petiole ;  caps,  smooth ;  sep.  abruptly  pointed. — 7J. 
A  tall,  showy  plant,  in  brackish  marshes  by  the  sea,  or  near  salt  springs,  and  on 
wet  prairies,  TJ.  S.  and  Can.     St.  round,  downy,  4  to  6f  high.     Lvs.  4  to  6'  by  3 
to  4',  often  with  2  lateral  lobes.     Fls.  larger  than  those  of  the  hollyhock,  rose- 
colored,  purple  in  the  center.     Ped.  usually  distinct  from  the  petiole,  often  some 
of  them  united  with  it,  and  jointed  above  the  middle.     Sty.  1'  longer  than  tho 
stamens.     Aug. 

p.  FLAVESCENS.     Fls.  larger;  pet.  (4'  long)  of  "a  light  sulphur  yellow,  with  a 
purple  base.     Marshes,  Ind.     (H.  incanus  Wendl.) 

4  H.  grandiflorus  MX.     Hoary-tomentous;  Ivs.  cordate,  acuminate,  repand- den- 
tate, the  lower  often  3-lobed,  hoary  beneath,  coriaceous;  cor.  half- expanding; 
sep.  gradually  pointed;  caps,  densely  clothed  with  woolly  hairs. — "Lake  shores, 
N.  Orleans"  (Hale),  to  Ga.     Stems  branched  above,  5  to  7f  high.     Fls.  corymbed, 
terminal;  petals  4£'  long,  flesh-colored,  red  at  base,   column  declined,  rather 
shorter  than  the  petals.    JL — Oct 

5  H.  militaris  Car.     Glabrous ;  Ivs.  hastately  B-lobed,  lobes  acuminate,  serrate ; 
cor.  tubular-campanulate ;  caps,  smooth,  ovoid-acuminate. — Mid.  and  W.  States. 
St.  3  to  4f  high.     Lvs.  cordate  at  base,  4  to  5'  long,  rendered  somewhat  hastate 
by  a  divaricate  lobe  each  oide  at  base.     Petals  flesh-color,  with  a  purplish  base, 
2  to  3'  long.     Ped.  with  the  joint  above  the  middle.     JL,  Aug. 

6  H.  coccineus  Walt.     Very  smooth ;  Ivs.  palmate,  5-parted,  lobes  lanceolate, 
acuminate,  remotely  serrate  above ;  cor.  expanding;  caps,  .smooth,  ovoid. — 1\.  A 
splendid  flower,  native  of  damp  soils,  in  Ga.,  etc.,  and  is  raised  from  seeds  in  gar- 
dens, northward,     lit.  perennial.     St.  herbaceous,  5  to  9f  high.     Segm.  of  Ivs.  6' 
long,  very  acuminate.     Ms.  of  a  bright  carmine  red.     Petals  slender  at  the  base, 
4  to  5'  iong.     Column  still  longer,  slender  and  terete.     JL — Oct.  f .     (H.  specio- 

{    sus  Ait.) 

7  H.  Caroliniamis   Muhl.      Herbaceous,  glabrous;    Ivs.  cordate,  ovate,  acumi- 
nate, some  of  them  obscurely  3-lobed;  ped.  distinct  from  the  petiole  ;  petals  pubes- 
cent inside ;  caps,  hairy  inside ;  sds.  hispid. — Wilmington  IsL  Ga.  (Elliott.)     A 
rare  species,  apparently  lost  to  modern  botanists..    Petals  purple,  4'  long.     Caps, 
globular. 

8  H.  Syriacus  L.  TREE  HIBISCUS,  Arboreous;  Ivs.  ovate,  cuneiform  at 
base,  3-lobed,  dentate;  peduncle  scarcely  longer  than  the  petiole;  involucel 
about  8-leaved. — A  beautiful,  hardy,  free-flowering  shrub  or  small  tree,  8  to  15f 
high.  Fls.  purple,  large.  There  are  varieties  with  white,  red,  and  striped  fls., 
both  single  and  double.  \  Syria. 

12.  ABELMOSCHUS,  Medik.  Okra.  (Arabic  Ab-el-mosch,  grain  or 
seed  of  musk ;  the  seeds  smell  of  musk.)  Calyx  large,  spathaceous, 
/.  c .,  splitting  to  the  base  on  one  side ;  involucel,  column  and  fruit  as  in 
Hibiscus. 

1  A.  Manihot  Medik.  Not  prickly ;  Ivs.  palmately  divided  into  5  to  7  linear, 
acuminate,  coarsely  dentate  lobes  ;  ped.  and  involucel  hispid ;  bracts  of  the  involu- 
cel 5  to  7,  ovate  or  lanceolate,  acutish,  persistent,  entire ;  cal.  split  on  one  side ; 
caps,  densely  hirsute,  acuminate. — ^-  Western  States.  A  beautiful  herb,  4  to  5f 
high.  Lvs.  cordate,  lobes  6  to  10'  long,  £  to  IV  wide,  separated  to  near  the  base, 
about  as  long  as  the  petioles.  Teeth  largest  near  the  summit.  The  fls.  arc  of  an 
exceedingly  rich  sulphur  yellow,  purple  in  the  center.  Petals  3  to  4'  long.  JL, 
Aug.  (Hibiscus,  L.) 

2  A.  esculentus  Medik.  OKRA.  Lvs.  cordate,  5-lobed,  obtuse,  dentate  ;  petiole 
longer  than  the  flower ;  involucel  about  b-leaved,  caducous. — Native  of  W.  Indies. 
Plant  herbaceous,  2  to  3 f  high,  nearly  glabrous.  Petiole  with  a  hairy  lino  on  the 
upper  side,  nearly  IF  in  length.  Lamina  8  to  10'  broad.  Fls.  1  to  2'  long,  on  a 
short  peduncle.  Petals  greenish  yellow.  The  large,  mucilaginous  pods  are  used 
for  pickles,  or  served  up  with  butter.  (Hibiscus,  L.) 


OEDEB  26.— TILIACEJ3.  271 

3  A.  Collinsiana.  Lvs.  pedatety  5-parted,  segm.  linear-oblanceolate,  coarsely 
toothed,  acuminate,  the  lowest  obtusely  5-lobed;  ped.  short,  inveluctl  10  to  12- 
leaved. — Fla.,  rare.  Plant  thinly  hirsute  or  hispid.  Lvs.  6  to  8'  broad,  Fls. 
much  as  in  No.  2.  (Hibiscus,  Nutt) 

13.  GOSSYPIUM,  L.  COTTON  PLANT.  Fig.  252.  (Name  said  to 
be  from  the  Arabic,  goz,  a  silky  substance.)  Calyx  obtusely  5-toothed, 
surrounded  by  an  involucel  of  3  cordate  leaves,  deeply  and  incisely 
toothed  ;  stamens  very  numerous,  lateral ;  stigmas  3,  rarely  5,  clavate  ; 
seeds  oo,  involved  in  cotton. — Fls.  yellow. 

G.  herbaceuxn  L.  COTTON  PLANT.  Lvs.  3  to  5-lobed,  with  a  single  gland 
below,  lobes  mucronate ;  seeds  brownish,  cotton  white. — (T)  The  species  com- 
monly cultivated  in  the  Southern  States,  and  often  growing  spontaneously.  It  is 
an  herbaceous  plant,  about  5f  high,  sown  in  early  spring  and  harvested  in 
autumn.  Sts.  hirsute  above.  Upper  Ivs.  often  but  2  or  3-lobed.  lobes  commonly 
acuminate,  tipped,  with  a  mucro.  Petioles  about  as  long  as  the  Ivs..  peduncles 
shorter.  Fls.  handsome,  3'  broad,  light  yellow,  with  a  purple  eye.  changing  to 
reddish  brown.  §  E.  India. 

p  ?  BARBADENSE.  Sea  Island  Cotton.  Glands  on  the  back  of  the  leaf  (mid- 
vein)  3 ;  sds.  black,  cotton  white. — (D  Sown  in  Sept  and  Oct.  Cotton  long, 
with  a  silk-like  texture,  f  "W.  India.  Chiefly  cultivated  near  the  southern 
coasts.  (G-.  Barbadenso  L.) 

G.  arboreum  is  the  Tree  Cotton  of  E.  India,4with  red  flowers,  and  G-.  Peru- 
vianum,  the  Brazil  Cotton.     The  Nankin  Cotton  'is  another  variety  of  G.  herba- 
oeum.     Plants  so  extensively  cultivated  as  the  cotton  are  liable  to  much  varia- 
tion.    Of  the  thirteen  species  described  by  De  Candolle,  only  the  three  above 
named  are  now  regarded  as  genuine — the  others  considered  as  varieties. 
The  microscope  shows  the  fiber  of  cotton  to  consist  of  a  lengthened  and  generally 
flattened  cell,  thus  readily  distinguished  from  the  fiber  of  silk,  which  is  terete  and 
solid,  or  wool,  which  is  imbricate-scaly. 


ORDER  XXV.     STERCULIACE^E.     SILK  COTTONS. 

Large  trees  or  shrubs  with  simple  or  compound  leaves,  with  flowers  similar  to 
those  of  the  Mallow,  except  that  tho  anthers  are  2-celled  and  turned  outwards. 
Fruit  capsular,  of  3,  rarely  5  carpels. 

Genera  24,  species  130,  all  native  of  tropical  regions.  Here  belong  the  huge  Adansonia  (Bao- 
bab) of  Africa,  and  the  lioinbax  (silk-cotton  trees)  of  &.  America,  etc. 

STERCULIA,  L.  (Sterculiu*  was  tlie  name  of  a  detestable  Roman 
god ';  alluding  to  the  bad  odor  of  some  species.)  Calyx  5-lobed,  sub- 
coriaceous  ;  stamens  monadelphous,  united  into  a  short,  sessile  cup ; 
anth.  adnate,  10,  15,  or  20;  carpels  5,  distinct,  follicular,  1-celled, 
1 —  co  -seeded. — Trees  with  axillary  panicles  or  racemes. 

S.  platanifolia  L.  Lvs.  cordate  at  base,  palmately  3 — 5-lobed,  smooth ;  calyx 
rotate,  reflexed. — Tree  from  China  and  Japan,  cultivated  at  Savannah  (Feay).  A 
beautiful  tree,  with  branching,  axillary  Clusters  of  green  fls.  and  leaves  resembling 
those  of  the  Sycamore.  Jl.  (Firmiana,  Mars.) 


ORDER  XXYL     TILIACEJE.     LINDENBLOOMS, 

Trees  or  shrubs  (rarely  herbs)  with  simple,  stipulate,  alternate,  dentate  Ivs.,  with 
fls.  axillary,  hypogynous,  usually  perfect  and  polyadelphous;  with  the  sepals  4  or  5, 
deciduous,  valvate  in  aestivation,  the  petals  4  or  5,  imbricated ;  stamens  GC  ?  with  2- 
celled,  versatile  anthers.  Ovary  of  2  to  10  united  carpels,  a  compound  style,  and 


272  ORDER  26.— TILLAGES. 

stigmas  as  many  as  carpels.  Fr.  dry  or  succulent,  many-celled,  or  1-celled  by  abor- 
tion. Embryo  in  the  axis  of  fleshy  albumen.  (Fig.  185.) 

Genera  88,  specie*  350,  native  in  all  regions,  but  especially  within  the  tropics.  Like  the  Mal- 
lows, the  Lindenblooms  abound  in  a  wholesome  mucilaginous  juice,  and  a  tough,  stringy  bark. 
Of  the  liber  of  the  European  Lindens  the  celebrated  Russia  matting  is  manufactured,  and  in 
India  various  species  of  Corchorus  yield  a  good  substitute  for  hemp,  used  for  fishing-lines,  nets, 
rice-bags,  etc. 

1.  CORCHORUS,  L.     Sepals  and  petals  4  or  5  ;  stamens  QQ,  rarely 
as  few  as  the  petals;  style  very  short,  deciduous,  stigmas  2  to  5  ;  cap- 
sule roundish  orsiliquose,  2  to  5-celled,  many-seeded. — Herbs  or  shrubs 
with  yellow  flowers. 

C.  ailiquosus  L.  Branching,  minutely  hispid;  Ivs.  ovate-lanceolate,  acuminate, 
equally  serrate,  4  times  longer  than  the  petioles ;  caps,  siliquose,  linear,  2-valved. 
— About  N.  Orleans  (Hale).  St.  slender.  Lvs.  2  to  3'  long,  £  as  wide,  the  vein- 
lets  running  to  the  points  of  the  serratures.  Fls.  4-merous,  with  12  or  16  sta- 
mens. Pod  nearly  2'  long,  the  numerous  seeds  in  2  rows. 

2.  TILIA,  L.     LINDEN  OR  LIME  TREE.     Calyx  of  5,   united  sepals, 
colored ;  corolla  of  5,  oblong,  obtuse  petals,  crenatc  at  apex  ;  stamens 

'Qo,  somewhat  polyadelphous,  each  set  (in  the  N.  American  species) 
with  a  petaloid  scale  (staminodium)  attached  at  base ;  ovary  superior, 
5-celled,  2-ovuled;  capsules* globous,  by  abortion  1-celled,  1  to  2-seeded. 
— Trees.  Lvs.  cordate.  Fls.  cymous.  with  the  peduncle  adnate  to  the 
vein  of  a  large  leaf-like  bract. 

§  Staminodia  5,  petaloid,  opposite  the  petals Nos.  1,  2 

§  Staminodia  none.     Stamens  scarcely  cohering No.  8 

1  T.  Americana  L.     BASS-WOOD.     Lvs.  broad  cordate,  unequal  at  base,  mucro- 
nate-serrate,  acuminate,  coriaceous,  smooth  and  green  on  both  sides :  petals  trun- 
cate or  obtuse  at  apex ;  sty.  as  long  as  the  petals. — A  common  forest  tree  in  the 
Northern  and  Mid.  States.    It  often  grows  to  the  height  of  80f,  the  trunk  straight, 
and  naked  more  than  half  this  hight,  and  3  to  4f  diam.     Lvs.  4  to  5'  by  3  to  4', 
those  of  the  young  shoots  often  twice  these  dimensions.    Bracts  yellowish,  linear- 
oblong.     Petals  yellowish   white,    larger  than  the   Staminodia  opposite  them. 
Fruit  woody,  greenish,  of  the  size  of  peas.     Jn. — The  inner  bark  is  very  strong, 
and  is  manufactured  into  ropes.     The  wood  is  white,  soft,  and  clear,  much  used 
in  cabinet  work  and  in  the  paneling  of  carriages. 

ft  WALTERI.  Lvs.  pubescent  (but  green)  beneath. — A  large  tree,  Va.  to  Fla,, 
low  country,  in  woods  and  along  rivers.  It  takes  the  place  of  the  smooth  var- 
iety (a),  which  is  common  northward  and  along  the  Mts.  to  Ga.  (T.  pubes- 
cens  Ait.  T.  laxinora  MX.  T.  Americana  Walt). 

2  T.    heterophylla   Vent.      WHITE    BASS-WOOD.     Lvs.   obliquely    subcordate, 
scarcely  acuminate,  white  and  velvety  beneath,  with  darker  veins,  glabrous,  shin- 
ing, and  dark  green  above,  mucronately  serrate ;  petals  obtuse,  crenulate ;  Stam- 
inodia spatulate ;  sty.  hairy  at  base,  longer  than  the  petals. — Banks  of  the  Ohio 
and  Miss.     (Pursh.)    Xot  common.     Trees  20  to  50f  high.     Lvs.  very  oblique  at 
base,  3  to  5'  diam.,  well  distinguished  by  the  white  surface  beneath,  contrasted 
with  the  purple  veins.     Bract  linear-oblong.     Cal.  hoary,  gradually  pointed.    Pr. 
globular. 

ft  ALBA.  Lvs.  whitish  and  minutely  tomentous  beneath,  serratures  finp  and 
long-mucronate. — Ky.  and  southward  along  the  mts.  Tree  of  great  size. 
One  specimen  (Rock  Castle  Co.)  I  judged  to  be  90f  in  hight,  with  wide-spread 
branches,  in  open  space.  Reddish  hairs  in  the  axils  of  the  veins  beneath. 

3  T.  Europ^a  L.  LIME  TREE.  Lvs.  suborbicular,  obliquely  cordate, 
abruptly  acuminate,  serrulate,  twice  as  long  as  the  petioles,  glabrous  except  a 
woolly-tuft  in  the  axils  of  the  veins  beneath. — A  highly  ornamental  tree  with 
very  dense  foliage,  cultivated  in  parks.  Bracts  rhombic-oblong,  f  Eur.  (T.  mi- 
crophylla,  etc.) 


ORDER  27.— CAMELUACE^E.  273 

ORDER  XXVII.    '  CAMELLIACELzE.     CAMELLIAS  OR  TEAWORTS. 

Trees  or  shrubs  with  alternate,  simple,  feather-veined,  exstipulate  leaves.  Flowers 
regular,  polyandrous,  hypogynous,  cyanic,  with  sepals  and  petals  imbricated,  the 
former  often  unequal  in  size.  Stamens  more  or  less  coherent  at  base  into  one,  three 
or  five  sets.  Anthers  2-celled.  Seeds  few,  with  little  or  no  albumen,  cotyledons 
large. 

Genera  83,  species  130.  Beautiful  flowering  plants,  60  or  70  of  them  natives  of  S.  America,  4 
of  N.  America,  the  remainder  of  China  and  E.  Indies.  Their  properties  are  stimulating  and 
slightly  narcotic.  The  tea,  so  extensively  used  as  a  beverage  in  the  civilized  world  is  the  leaf  of 
2  or.3  species  of  Thea.  In  contains  a  peculiar  extractive  matter  called  theine,  and  a  stimulating, 
essential  oil,  which  becomes  narcotic  in  some  hot  climates.  Thea  Bohea  and  T.  viridis  are  the 
two  species  which  yield  all  the  varieties  of  Chinese  teas,  according  to  the  various  methods  of 
preparing  the  leaves. 

GFXERA. 

§  Calyx  of  many  imbricated  sepals.    Stamens  monadelphous CAMELLIA.  1 

§  Calyx  simple. — Stamens  united  at  base  into  one  set STUARTIA.  2 

— Stamens  in  5  sets,  adhering  to  the  base  of  the  petals GOKDONIA.  3 

1.  CAMELLIA,  L.     TEA  ROSE.     (In  honor  of  G.  J.  Kamel,  a  Jesuit, 
author  of  some  botanical  works.)     Sepals  many,  imbricated,  the  inner 
ones  larger ;  petals  sometimes  adhering  at  base ;  filaments  cc,  shorter 
than  the  corolla,  united  at  base  ;  styles  united  ;  stigmas  3  to  5,  acute. — 
Ornamental  shrubs,  native  of  China  and  Japan. 

C.  Japonica  L.  JAPAN  ROSE.  Lvs.  ovate,  acuminate,  acutely  serrate,  glabrous 
and  shining  on  both  sides,  coriaceous  and  firm,  on  short  petioles ;  fls.  terminal  and 
mostly  solitary ;  petals  obovate,  of  a  firm  texture  ;  sta.  about  50,  mostly  changed 
to  petals  in  cultivation ;  stig.  unequally  5-cleft. — A  lofty  tree  in  Japan,  its  native 
country,  a  splendid  flowering  shrub  with  us,  hardy  at  the  South,  but  requirirg 
protection  at  the  North.  Fls.  varying  from  white  to  red,  resembling  the  rose,  but 
wanting  its  fragrance.  Over  300  varieties  are  enumerated. 

2.  STUARTIA,  Catesby.     (In  honor  of  John  Stuart,   the   Marquis 
of  Bute.)     Sepals  5  (or  6),  ovate  or  lanceolate ;  petals  5   (or  6),  ob- 
ovate, crenulate  ;  stamens  monadelphous  at  base  ;  capsule  5-celled,  5  cr 
10-seeded,  seeds  ascending. — Shrubs  with  deciduous  leaves  and  large, 
showy,  fragrant,  axillary,  nearly  sessile  flowers. 

1  S.  Virgmica  Cav.     Sep.  ovate;  sta.  dark  purple;    sty.  united  into  one  with  a 
5-lobed  stigma. — AYoods,  middle  country,  Fla.  to  Ya.     A  beautiful  shrub,  8  to  12f 
high.     Lvs.  elliptic-ovate,  acuminate  at  both  ends,  silky -pubescent  beneath,  slightly 
mucronate-serrulate,  2'  long,  ^  as  wide.     Petals  white,  nearly  2'  in  length,  slightly 
pubescent  beneath,  strongly  contrasted  with  the  short,  dark  stamens.     May.     (S. 
Malachodendron  L.) 

2  S.  pentagynia  I/Her.      Sep.  lanceolate;  stam.  colored  like  the  petals,  very 
numerous;  sty.  5,  distinct,  as  long  as  the  stamens.-. — Woods  along  streams  in  high- 
lands. Ky.  (Rock  Castle  and  Madison  counties)  to  Ga.     A  handsome  shrub.  10  to 
lof  high.     Lvs.  thick,  glabrous,  ovate,  acuminate,  acute  at  base,  obscurely  mucro- 
nate-serrate,  3  to  4'  long,  £  as  wide.     Petals  as  large  as  in  Xo.  1,  quite  silky  pu- 
bescent beneath,  one  of  them  always  much  the  smallest,  white   (scarcely  cream- 
colqjred).     Caps.  5-angled. 

3.  GORDONIA,  Ellis.     LOBLOLLY  BAY.     (In  honor  of  James  Goraon, 
a  distinguished  nurseryman  of  London.)     Sepals  5,  roundish,  strongly 
imbricated  ;  petals,  5  ;  stamens  5-adelphous,  one  set  adhering  to  each 
petal  at  base ;  styles  united  into  one ;  capsule  woody,  5-celled  ;  seeds 
2  or  more  in  each  cell,  pendulous.     Trees  with  large,  white,  axillary, 
pedunculate  flowers. 

18 


274  OBDER  28.—  AURANTIACE^E. 

1  G.  Lasianthus  L.     Lvs.  coriaceous,  perennial,  glabrous,  shining  on  both  sides, 
lance-oblong  ;  peduncles  half  as  long  as  the  Ivs.  ;  sty.  as  long  as  the  stamens.  — 
Swamps  near  the  coast,  Va.  to  Fla.     The  Loblolly  Bay  is  a  large  tree  50  to  SOf  in 
height,  with  a  rough  bark  when  old,  and  light,  coarse-grained,  mahogany-colored 
wood.     Lvs.  3  to  4'  long,  1  to  2'  wide,  acute  at  each  end,  fascicled  at  the  ends  of 
the  branches.     Sep.  very  silky  outside,  small.     Petals  white,  •!£'  long,  silky  with- 
out at  base.     May  —  Aug. 

2  G.  pubescens  L'Her.     Lvs.  thin,  serrate,  deciduous,  oblong-cuneiform,  shinin'j 
above,  canescent  beneath  ;  fls.  on  short  peduncles  ;  sep.  and  pet.  silky  outside.  —  A 
tree  30  to  50f  high  in  Ga.  and  Fla.,  or  an  ornamental  shrub  in  cultivation  at  the; 
North,  admired  for  its  large  white  flowers,  with  yellow  stamens  and  rich  fragrance. 

..Lvs.  membranous,  subsessile,  with  fine,  sharp  serratures.      May  —  Aug.     (Frank- 
liniana  Americana  Marsh.) 

ORDER  XXVIII.  AURANTIACE^E.  ORANGES. 
Trees  or  shrubs,  glabrous,  abounding  in  little  transparent  receptacles  of  volatile 
oil,  with  Ivs.  alternate,  articulated  with  the  petiole  which  is  frequently  winged. 
J?s.  regular,  3  —  5-merous,  petals  and  stamens  inserted  on  a  hypogynous  disk. 
Stamens  with  flat  filaments,  distinct  or  cohering  in  one  or  several  sets.  Ova.  com- 
pounded of  several  united  carpels.  Sty.  1.  Fr.  a  berry  (orange)  many-celled, 
pulpy,  covered  with  a  thick  rind.  Sds.  attached  to  the  inner  angle  of  each  carpel. 
Albumen,  0.  Cotyledon  thick.  (Figs.  276, 


Genera  20,  species  95,  nearly  all  natives  of  tropical  Asia,  naturalized  throughout  all  tropical 
regions,  and  cultivated  in  all  civilized  countries  for  their  beauty  and  fragrance,  both  of  iluwcrs 
and  fruit. 

Properties.    These  fruits  contain  free  citric  and  malic  acid,  and  their  pulp  is  grateful  to  the 
taste.    The  rind  contains  an  aromatic,  volatile  oil,  which  is  tonic  and  stomachic.    The  rind  of 
the  lime  yields  the  oil  of  Bergamot,  and  the  flower  of  the  orange  the  oil  of  Neroli. 
\ 

CITRUS,  L.  (Gr.  Kirpiov,  the  citron  ;  the  fruit  of  one  of  the  species.) 
Sepals  and  petals  in  5s  ;  anthers  20,  or  some  other  and  higher  multiple 
of  5,  versatile,  the  connectile  articulated  to  the  filament  ;  filaments 
dilated  at  base,  polyadelphous;  berry  9  —  18-cellcd.  —  A  noble  genus 
of  trees  and  shrubs,  all  tropical,  combining  in  its  species  beauty  of  form, 
with  shining,  evergreen  foliage,  odoriferous  fls.,  fragrant  and  delicious 
fruit.  The  articulation  of  the  petiole  with  the  lamina  is  regarded  by 
some  botanists  as  indicating  a  reduced  compound  leaf. 

1  C.  Limonum  L.     LEMON  TREE.     Petioles  somewhat  winged;  sta.  35;  fr. 
oblong-spheroid,  with  a  thin  rind  and  very  acid  pulp.  —  A  tree  about  15f  in  hight, 
which,  when  laden  with  its  golden  fruit  suspended  among  its  dark  green  leaves. 
makes  a  most  beautiful  appearance.     It  is  a  native  of  tropical  regions,  and  is 
easily  cultivated  in  the  temperate  climates  if  protected  during  winter,  f 

2  C.  Auraiitium  L.     SWEET  ORANGE  TREE.     Petiole  winged;  leaf  slightly 
oblong,  acute,  crenulate  ;  sta.  20;  fr.  globous,  with  a  thin  rind  and  sweet  pulp.  — 
A  middle-sized  evergreen  tree,  with  a  greenish  brown  bark.     When  filled  with 
its  large,  round,  golden  fruit  (sometimes  to  the  number  of  20,000,  Lindley),  it  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  objects  in  nature.     The  cultivation  of  the  orange  in 
Fla.  and  S.  Ga.  has  been  recently  checked  by  severe  frosts.     It  is  easily  raised  in 
the  green  house  at  the  North,     f  §  "W.  Indies. 

3  C.  decumana   L.     SHADDOCK  TREE.    Petioles  broadly  winged;  $tuse, 
emarginate  ;  fr.  very  large,  with  a  thick  rind.  —  A  tree  15f  in  hight.     Wings  of 
the  petioles  as  broad  as  the  leaves.     Fr.  grows  to  the  diam.  of  7  —  8',  weighs  14 
pounds,  and  is  of  a  yellowish-green  color.  \ 

4  C.  Limeta  L.     LIME  TREE.     Petioles  not  at  all  winged;  If.  ovate-orbicular, 
serrate  ;   stam.  30  ;  fr.  globous,  with  a  sweet  pulp,  and  a  protuberance  at  top. 
This,  like  most  other  species,  is  native  of  Asia.     Hight  above  8f,  with  a  crooked 
trunk,    diffuse  branches  with  prickles.     Berry  1-^'  diam.,  of  a  greenish-yellow, 
shining  surface,  f 


ORDER  30.— LINAGES.  275 

5  C.  Medica  L.  CITRON  TREE.  Petioles  not  at  all  winged;  If.  oblong,  acute; 
stam.  40 ;  fr.  oblong-spheroid,  rugous,  with  an  acid  pulp. — Commonly  about  8f 
high.  Fr.  6'  in  length,  fragrant,  f 

Obs.  In  a  splendid  work  entitled  "The  Natural  History  of  Oranges,"  written  in  French  by 
Eisso,  of  Nice,  in  1818,  there  are  described  1G9  varieties,  and  105  of  them  figured.  They  arc 
arranged  as  sweet  oranges,  of  which  there  are  described  42  varieties  ;  bitter  and  sour  oranges, 
82  ;  Bergainots,  5  ;  Limes,  8  ;  Shaddocks,  6  ;  Lumes,  12  ;  Lemons,  46  ;  Citrous,  17.  The  most 
successful  methods  of  cultivation  are  by  cuttings. 

ORDER  XXIX.     MELIACE^E. 

Trees  or  shrubs  with  exstipulate,  often  pinnate  leaves.  Fls.  3 — 5-merous,  stamens 
6 — 10,  coherent  into  a  long  tube  with  sessile  anthers.  Disk  hypogynous,  sometimes 
cup-like  ;  style  1.  Ovary  compound,  several-celled,  cells  1 — 2,  4-ovuled.  Fruit 
fleshy  or  dry,  often  1-celled  by  abortion.  Seeds  neither  winged  nor  axillate. 

Genera  33,  species  150,  natives  of  the  hotter  parts  of  the  globe. 

MELIA,  L.  PRIDE  OF  INDIA.  (Gr.  /teAi,  honey;  the  name  was 
first  applied  to  the  Manna  Ash.)  Sepals  small,  5,  united  ;  petals 
spreading;  stamen  tube  10-cleffc  at  summit  with  10  anthers  in  the 
throat ;  ovary  5-celled,  10-ovuled  ;  style  deciduous ;  drupe  with  a 
5-celled,  bony  nut,  cells  1-seeded. — Trees  with  bipinnate  Ivs.  and 
panicles  of  delicate  flowers. 

M.  Azedarach  L.  Lvs.  deciduous,  glabrous,  Ifts.  obliquely  lance-ovate,  acuminate, 
serrate. — Southern  States,  common.  A  large  tree  30 — 40f  high,  with  light 
foliage  and  a  profusion  of  lilac-colored  fls.  Drupes  as  large  as  cherries,  with  a 
poisonous  pulp,  hanging  in  clusters  through  the  winter.  The  bark  is  esteemed  as 
a  vermifuge,  but  narcotic.  Dwarfed  specimens  are  frequent  in  green  houses  at  the 
North. 

ORDER  XXX.     LINAGES.     FLAXWORTS. 

Herbs  with  entire,  simple  leaves  and  no  stipules ;  with  flowers  regular,  symme- 
trical, and  perfect,  5-(rarely  3  or  4-)merous.  Calyx  strongly  imbricated  in  the  bud, 
corolla  convolute,  hypogynous ;  stamens  definite,  hypogynous,  alternate  with  the 
petals ;  styles  distinct  with  capitate  stigmas,  and  each  cell  of  the  capsule  more  or 
less  divided  by  a  false  dissepiment  into  two  1-seeded  compartments.  Seeds  with 
little  or  no  albumen,  attached  to  axile  placentae. 

Genera  3,  species  90.  A  very  important  order  in  the  arts.  The  Linum  has  a  very  tenacious 
fiber  in  its  bark,  which  is  wrought  into  thread  and  cloth,  forming  the  linen  of  commerce.  Some 
species  are  cathartic,  and  yield  from  their  seeds  a  fine  mucilage.  Only  one  genus  need  be  men- 
tioned here,  viz : — 

LINUM,  L.  FLAX.  (Celtic  llin,  a  thread  ;  hence  Gr.  A/Vov,  Eng.  linen, 
flax.)  Sepals,  petals,  stamens  and  styles  5,  the  latter  rarely  3  ;  cap- 
sules 5-celled;  cells  nearly  divided  by  a  false  dissepiment;  seeds  10, 
suspended,  mucilaginous. — Herbs  with  a  bark  of  strong  fibers,  and  sim- 
ple, sessile  Ivs. 

*  Flowers  blue (—red,  No.  7.) Nos.  1,  2 

*  Flowers  yellow. — Sepals  ciliate.    Lvs.  linear Nos.  3,  4 

^  — Sepals  entire.    Lvs.  lanceolate Nos.  5, 6,  S 

1  L.  usitatissimum  L.  COMMON*  FLAX.  St.  branching  above  ;  Ivs.  alternate 
linear-lanceolate,  acute ;  pan icle  corymbous ;  sep.  ovate,  acute,  3-veined  at  the 
base,  membranous  on  the  margin ;  petals  crenate. —  £  Introduced  and  some- 
what naturalized  in  fields.  St.  1  to  2f  high,  with  3-veined  leaves,  and  many 
large,  handsome,  blue  flowers.  Jn.,  Jl. — This  important  plant  has  been  cultivated 
from  remote  antiquity  (see  Gen.  xli.  42),  for  the  strong  fibers  of  the  bark,  which 
are  manufactured  into  linen.  The  seeds  yield  linseed  oil,  so  extensively  used  in 
mixing  paint,  printers'  ink,  etc.  They  are"  also  medicinal.  §  f 


* 
276  ORDER  31.—  GERANIACE^E. 

2  L.  perenne  L.    PERENNIAL  FLAX.    Glabrous,  with  virgate  branches  ;  Ivs.  linear, 
acute,  scattered  ;  fls.  supra-axillary  and  terminal;  sep.  oval,  margins  membran- 
ous, shorter  than  the  globous  capsule  ;  petals  retuse,  blue,  3  or  4  tunes  the  length 
of  the  sepals.  —  If  Native  "West  of  the  Miss,  (perhaps  not  within  the  limits  of 
this  Flora)!     Not  uncommon  in  gardens.     Also  native  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

3  L.  rfgidum  Ph.     St.  angular;  Ivs.  erect,  rigid,  linear,  acute;  fls.  racemed  on 
the  corymbous  branches;  sep.  3-veined,  ovate-lanceolate,  acuminate  and,  with  the 
bracts  glandularly  fringe-serrate,  longer  than  the  globous  capsule  ;   styles  more  or 
less  united  at  base.  —  Conn.  (Robbins)  to  Iowa  (Cousens),  southward  and  northward  ; 
not  common.     Sts.  10  to  16'  high,  erect  as  well  as  the  branches.     Lvs.  4  to  8" 
long,  scabrous  on  the  margins.     Fls.   sulphur  yellow,   8"  diam.     Jn.,  Jl.     (L. 
Booth'  Planch.)  —  The  union  of  the  styles  appears  variable  in  degree,  in  specimens 
which  coincide  in  all  other  respects. 

4  L.  simplex.     St.  simple,  with  a  small  corymb  with  spreading  branches  at  top  ; 
Ivs.  rigid,  erect,  linear-subulate,  alternate  ;  fls.  few  ;  sep.  lanceolate,  acute,  scabrous 
on  the  margins,  3-veined,  shorter  than  the  globous-ovate  capsules  ;  styles  distinct.  — 
La.  (Hale).     St.  slender,  12  to  18'  high.     Lvs.  4  to  5"  long.     Capsules  as  largo 
as  Coriander. 

5  L.  Virgin!  amim  L.     St.  strict,  with  rather  erect,  corymbous  branches  above  ; 
Ivs.  linear-lanceolate,  acute,  erect;  fls.  showy  (5"  diam.)",  all  turned  to  the  upper 
side  of  the  branches;  sep.  ovate-lanceolate,  mucronate,  about  as  long  as  the  do- 
pressed  capsule;  sty.  distinct.  —  Woods  and  hills,  U.  S.  and  Can.     St.  near  2f  high. 
terete,  glabrous.      Lvs.  6  to  8"  by  1  to  2",  with  one  distinct  vein  only.     Sep. 
1-veined.     Jl. 

6  L.  diffusum.     St.  angular,   diffusely  paniculate  ;  branches  and  veiny,  lanceolate 
Ivs.,  spreading;  fls.  alternate,  very  small  (scarcely  2"  broad);  sep.  ovate,  abruptly 
mucronate,  as  long  as  the  depressed  capsule  ;  sty.  distinct.  —  Wet  prairies,  Ind.,  0. 
Very  different  in  aspect  from  No.  5,  having  the  stem  leaves  twice  larger  (!'  by 
4"),  the  branch  leaves  minute,  arid  the  flowers  3  times  smaller.     Jl. 

7  L.  grandiflorum  Desf.  Fig.  262.   CRIMSON-COLORED  FLAX.    Erect,  smooth. 
branched  above  ;  leaves  elliptic-lanceolate,  acute  at  each  end,  sessile,  the  lower 
and  radical  lance-obovate,  crowded,  petals  broadly  obovate,  bright  crimson.  — 
(T)  Gardens  (from  seeds  lately  distributed  by  the  Government).     Stem  8  —  10 
high.     Flowers  1'  diam.     f  N.  Africa. 

8  L.  trigymim  Sm.     Lvs.  elliptical,  acute,  mucronate,  entire  ;  styles  3  ;  caps. 
3-celled.     Green-house  plant  with  large  (!'  diain.)  yellow  flowers.     •}•  E.  Indies. 

ORDER  XXXI.     GERANIACEvE.     GERANIA. 

Herbs  or  shmbs  swollen  and  separable  at  the  joints,  with  stipulate,  palmate- 
veined  leaves  and  symmetrical,  hypogynous,  5-merous  flowers.  Sepals  imbricated 
and  petals  convolute  in  estivation  ;  stamens  mostly  10,  and  monadelphous,  the  alter- 
nate ones  often  abortive  ;  ovary  of  5  sepals,  each  2-ovuled,  in  fruit  1-seeded,  coher- 
ing to  an  elongated  torus  (carpophore)  from  which  they  separate,  curving  upwards 
on  the  persistent  style. 

Genera  4,  species  500.  Geranium  and  Erodium  inhabit  chiefly  the  Northern  temperate  zones. 
Pelargonium  abounds  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  occurs  in  Australia  ;  ami  in  cultivation  is 
found  everywhere. 

GENERA. 

Stamens  10,  —  all  perfect.     Corolla  regular  .................................  GERAXIUM.  1 

—  5  perfect,  5  alternate  imperfect.     Cor.  reg  ....................  EKODIUM.  2 

—7  perfect.     Corolla  irregular  .................................  PELARGONIUM.  3 


1.  GERANIUM,  L.  CRANE'S  BILL.  (Gr.  yt-pavo^,  a  crane;  the 
beaked  fruit  resembles  a  crane's  bill.)  Sepals  and  petals  5,  regular, 
stamens  10,  all  perfect,  the  5  alternate  ones  longer,  and  each  with  a 
nectariferous  gland  at  its  base  ;  fruit  rostrate,  at  length  separating  into 
5  long-styled,  1-seeded  carpels;  styles  smooth  inside,  at  length  recurved 


ORDER  31.— GERANIACE^E.  277 

from  the  base  upwards  and  adhering  by  the  point  to  the  summit  of  the 
axis. — Herbaceous,  rarely  shrubby  at  the  base.  Peduncles  1,  2  or 
3-flowered. 

Petals  entire,  twice  as  long  as  the  awnecl  sepals Nos.  1,  2 

Petals  notched  or  2-lobed,  not  longer  than  sepals Nos.  3,  4 

1  G.  maculatum  L.     SPOTTED  GERANIUM.     St.  erect,  angular,  dichotomous,  re- 
trorsely  pubescent ;  Ivs.  palmately  3 — 5-lobed,  lobes  cuneiform  and  entire  at  base, 
incisely  serrate  above,  radical  ones  on  long  petioles,  upper  ones  opposite,  on  short 
petioles;  petals  entire;  sep.  mucronate-awned. — 2|!  Woods,  etc.,  U.  S.  and  Can., 
but  rare  in  X.  Eng.     A  fine  species  worthy  a  place  among  the  parlor  "  gerani- 
ums."    St.  1  to  2f  high.     Lvs.    2  to  3'  diam.,  cleft  £  way  down,  2  at  each  fork. 
Fls.  mostly  in  pairs,  on  unequal  pedicels,  often  somewhat  umbeled  on  the  ends 
of  the  long  peduncles.     Root  powerfully  astringent.     Apr. — Jn. 

2  G.  Robert! amim  L.    HERB  ROBERT.    St.  diffuse,  hairy ;  Ivs.  pinnately  3-parted 
to  the  base,  the  segm.  pinnatifid,  and  the  pinna3  incisely  toothed ;  sep.  mucronate- 
awned,  half  the  length  of  the  entire  petals. — (§)  Smaller  than  the  preceding,  in 
dry,  rocky  places.     Can  to  Ya.  and  Ky.     It  has  a  reddish  stem,  with  long,  diffuse, 
weak  branches.     Lvs.  on  long  petioles,  somewhat  hairy,  outline  1|  to  3'  diam., 
with  pinnatifid  segments.    Fls.  small,  pale-purple.    Capsules  small,  rugous,  keeled. 
Sds.  smooth.     The  plant  has  a  strong  disagreeable  smell.     May — Sept. 

3  G.  pusfllum  L.    St.  procumbent ;  Ivs.  renifonnor  roundish,  deeply  5  to  7 -parted, 
lobes  3 -cleft,  linear ;  sep.  hairy,  awriless,  about  as  long  as  the  emarginate  petals. — 
CD  A  delicate,  spreading  species,  growing  in  waste  grounds,  pastures,  etc.,  L.  Isl. 
and  "Western  N.Y.  (Torr).     St.  weak,  If  long,  branching,  covered  with  short,  de- 
flected hairs.     Lvs.  opposite,  divided  almost  to  the  base  into  5  or  7  lobes,  these 
again  variously  cut.     Fed.  axillary,  forked,  bearing  2  purplish-red  flowers  in  Jn. 
and  JL     §  Eur. 

4  G.  Carolinianum  L.     St.  diffusely  branched ;  Ivs.  deeply  5-parted,  lobes-  in- 
cisely toothed ;  ped.  rather  short  and  clustered  on  the  ends  of  the  branches ;  sep. 
mucronate-awned,  as  long  as  the  emarginate  petals. — CD  Fields  and  hills,  through- 
out Can.  and  U.  S.     Sts.  pubescent,  diffuse,  8  to  15'  long,  swelling  at  the  joints. 
Lvs.  9  to  18"  diam.,  hairy.     Fls.  small,  rose-colored,  in  pairs,  and  somewhat  fas- 
ciculate.    Sds.  minutely  reticulated,  reddish-brown,  1  in  each  hairy,  beaked  car- 
pel.    Jl.     (G-.  dissectum  L  ?). 

2.  ERODIUM,  L'Her.     HERON'S-BILL.     (Gr.  £p6>&6?,  a  heron  ;  from 
the  resemblance  of  the  beaked  fruit  to  the  heron's  bill.)     Calyx  5-leaved ; 
petals  5  ;  filaments  10,  the  5  alternate  ones  abortive ;  fruit  rostrate,  of 
5,  aggregated  capsules,  tipped  with  the  long,  spiral  style,  bearded  in- 
side.— Fls.  umbellate. 

E.  cicutarium  Sm.  Diffuse,  hairy ;  Ivs.  pinnately  divided,  segm.  sessile,  pinnatifid. 
incised,  acute ;  ped.  several-flowered ;  petals  unequal. — -Shores  of  O'neida  Lake. 
X.  Y.  Sts.  mostly  prostrate.  Lvs.  oblong  in  outline,  with  many  segments.  Fls. 
2  to  3"  diam.  May — Jn.  g  Eur. 

3.  PELARGONIUM,  L'ller.     (Gr.  TreAopyof,  a  stork;  from  the  re- 
semblance of  the  beaked  fruit  to  a  stork's  bill.)     Sepals  5,  the  upper 
one  ending  in  a  nectariferous  tube  extending  down  the  peduncle  with 
which  it  is  connected ;  petals  5,  irregular,  longer  than  the  sepals ;  fila- 
ments 10,  3  of  them  sterile. — A  large  genus  of  shrubby  or  herbaceous 
plants,  embracing  more  than   300  species,  and  innumerable  varieties, 
nearly  all  natives  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.     Lower  Ivs.   (in  plants 
raised  from  the  seed)  opposite,  upper  ones  alternate. 


*  Acaulescent  (nearly).     Et.  tuberous.     Lvs.  decompound.     P»>t.  yellowish  brown..  .Nos.  1,  2 

*  Caulescent. — Stems  herbaceous,  or  somewhat  shrubby  at  base  . '. Nos.  3—6 

—Steins  shrubby. — Lvs.  neither  divided  nor  angular Nos.  7 — 9 

— Lvs.  angular  or  with  shallow  lobes Nos.  10 — 14 

—Lvs.  divided  bt-vond  the  middle Nos.  15—18 


278  ORDER  31.— GERANIACE^E. 

1  P.  flayum  Ait.    CARROT-LEAVED  GERANIUM.    St.  very  simple ;  Ivs.  decom- 
pound, laciniate,  hairy,  segm.  linear ;  umbel  many-flowered,  fls.  brownish-yelloiv. 

2  P.  triste  A.    MOURNING  GERANIUM.     Lvs.  hairy,  pinnate ;  Ifts.  bipinnatifid, 
divisions  linear,  acute ;  fls.  dark-green,  in  simple  umbels.  / 

3  P.  odoratisaimum  A.    NUTMEG-SCENTED  GERANIUM.     St.  velvety,  short, 
fleshy ;  Ivs.  roundish,  cordate,  very  soft ;  branches  herbaceous,  long,   diffuse. — 
Valued  chiefly  for  the  powerful,  aromatic  smell  of  the  leaves,  the  flowers  being 
small,  whitish. 

4  P.  alchemilloides  A.     LADIES'  MANTLE  GERANIUM.     St.   vittous ;    Ivs. 
cordate,  viUous,  5-lobed,  palmate :  ped.  few-flowered ;  stig.  sessile. — St.  6'  high, 
diffuse,  very  hairy,  with  deflexed  bristles.     Fls.  pink-colored. 

5  P.  tricolor  B.    St.  suffruticous,  erect;  Ivs.  lanceolate,  villous,  cut-dentate,  trifid ; 
upper  pet.  glandular  afc  base. — St.  l^f  high.     This  species  is  distinguished  for  its 
beautifully  variegated  fls.     Petals  roundish  and  nearly  uniform  in  shape,  but  very 
different  in  color;  the  three  lower  ones  are  white,  sligMly  veined,  the  2  upper 
of  a  rich  purple,  almost  black  at  base. 

6  P.  coriandrifolium  Jac.     St.  herbaceous,  biennial,  somewhat  downy ;  Ivs. 
bipinnate,  smooth,  lobes  linear,  subpinnatifid. — St.  diffuse,  If  high.     Distinguished 
by  the  finely  divided  leaves  and  large  fls.     The  2  upper  petals  much  the  largest, 
obovate,  veined  with  purple,  the  3  lower,  of  which  the  middle  one  is  often 
wanting,  are  narrow  and  of  pure  white. 

7  P.  glaticum  L'ller.      Very  smooth  and  glaucous ;  Ivs.  lanceolate,  entire,  acu- 
minate; ped.  1 — 2-flowered. — Sts.  3f  high,  shrubby  and  branched.     The  plant  is 
remarkably  distinguished  by  its  leaves.     Ped.  axillary,  with  1  or  2  elegant  flowers. 
Petals  obovate,  of  a  delicate  blush  color  with  red  veins. 

8  P.  betulinum  A.     Lvs.  ovate,  unequally  serrate,  smoothish ;  stip.  ovate- 
lanceolate  ;  ped.  2 — ^-flowered. — St.  shrubby,  3f  high.     The  plant  is  well  named 
for  its  leaves.     Fls.  pale-pink,  with  deep  red  veins. 

9  P.  acetosum  A.     Lvs.  very  smooth,  obovate,  crenate,  somewhat  fleshy ;  ped. 
few-flowered ;  petate  linear. — St.  shrubby,  3f  high.     Named  for  the  acid  flavor 
of  the  leaves.     Fls.  pink. 

10  P.  zonale  L.    HORSE-SHOE  GERANIUM.    Lvs.  cordate-orbicular,  obsoletely 
lobed,  toothed,  marked  with  a  concentric  zone. — St.  thick,  shrubby,  2 — 3f  high. 
One  of  the  most  popular  of  all  the  species.     The  zone  upon  the  leaf  is  of  various 
shades.    The  fls.  are  of  a  bright  scarlet,  umbeled,  on  long  peduncles.    It  has  many 
varieties,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  is 

/3.  MARGINALE  ;  silver-edged ;  the  leaves  of  which  are  bordered  with  white. 

11  P.  inqulnans  A.     Lvs.  round,  reniform,  scarcely  divided,  crenate,  viscid ; 
umbels  many -flowed;    petals  obovate,   creuate. — Justly  admired   for  the  vivid 
scarlet  of  its  numerous  flowers.     The  name  alludes  to  the   reddish,   clammy 
moisture  which  stains  the  fingers  in  handling  the  soft,  downy  branches. 

12  P.  peltatum  A.     IVY-LEAVED  GERANIUM.     Lvs.  5-lobed,  entire,  fleshy, 
smooth,  more  or  less  peltate ;  umbels  few-flowered. — St.  climbing,  several  feet  in 
length.     Whole  plant  very  smooth.     A  beautiful  species,  with  umbels  of  very 
handsome  purplish  flowers. 

13  P.  tetragomirn  L'ller.    Branches  4-cornered,  fleshy ;  Ivs.  cordate,  bluntly 
lobed,  somewhat  toothed ;  pet.  4,  the  upper  ones  pale-pink,  with  crimson  veins, 
the  2  lower  small,  white. — Lvs.  small,  rounded,  notched,  with  scattered  hairs. 

14  P.  Watsonii  Link.     Lvs.  orbicular,  cordate,  somewhat  lobed,  crenato- 
dentate,  undulate  at  the  margin ;  stip.  acute,  cordate,  and  somewhat  toothed. — 
Fls.  large,  purple,  variegated,  several  together. 

15  P.  gran difionim  "W.    Smooth,  glaucous ;  Ivs.  5-lobed,  palmated,  cordate  at 
base,  the  lobes  dentate  towrard  the  end ;  petals  3  times  as  long  as  the  calyx. — 
Distinguished  for  the  size  and  beauty  of  the  flowers,  which  are  white,  the  2  upper 
ones  elegantly  veined,  and  tinged  with  red,  larger  than  the  rest. 

16  P.  graveolens  A.     ROSE-SCENTED  GERANIUM.     Lvs.  palmately  1-lobed, 
lobes  oblong,   bluntly  toothed,  revolute,   and  very   rough  at  the  edge;    umbels 
many-flowered,  capitate. — Nectary  about  half  as  long  as  calvx.     Lvs.  very  fra- 
grant.    Fls.  purple. 


ORDER   33.—  ZYGOPHYLLACEJ3.  279 

17  P.  radula  A.    Lvs.  palmate,  rough,  lobes  narrow,  pinnatifid,  revolute  at  edge, 
with  linear  segments;  umbels  few-flowered  ;  nectary  nearly  as  long  as  the  calyx.  — 
Distinguished  for  its  large  rough  leaves  deeply  divided  into  linear  segments,  and 
and  with  a  mint-like  fragrance.     Fls.  purple. 

18  P.  quercifolium  A.     OAK-LEAVED  GERANIUM.      Lvs.  cordate,  pinnatijid 
with  rounded  recesses,  lobes  obtusely  crenate;   branches  and  petioles  hispid.  — 
Lvs.  rough,  often  spotted.     Fls.  purplish. 

Obs.  The  above  are  among  the  more  distinguished  and  popular  species  of  this  vast  and 
favorite  genus.  Innumerable  varieties  produced  from  seeds  and  propagated  by  cuttings  are 
equally  common  and  often  of  superior  beauty.  No  genus  seems  to  be  regarded  with  so  universal 
favor  for  greenhouse  plants  as  this.  The  species  and  their  multitudes  of  hybrid  creations,  pro- 
duced by  modern  ingenuity,  are  cultivated  with  assiduous  attention  by  nearly  every  family 
which  makes  the  least  pretensions  to  taste  throughout  the  civilized  world. 

ORDER  XXXII.     OXALIDACE^E.     WOOD  SORRELS. 

Stems  low,  herbaceous,  with  an  acid  juice  and  alternate  compound  leaves.  Floic- 
ers  regular,  symmetrical,  hypogynous,  5-merous.  Sepals  persistent,  imbricated; 
petals  convolute  in  aestivation.  Stamens  16,  somewhat  monadelphous,  those  oppo- 
site the  petals  longest.  Styks  5,  separate  ;  capsule  5-celled,  several-seeded  ;  seeds 
albuminous.  (Illust.  in  Figs.  59.  64,  585.) 


Genera  1,  species  328,  inhabiting  fbe  hot  and  the  temperate  regions.  The  most  noticeable 
property  of  the  Order  is  the  sour  juice,  containing  oxalic  acid.  Several  species  are  cultivated 
for  the  beauty  of  their  flowers. 

OXALIS,  L.  WOOD  SORREL.  (Gr.  o^vc,  sour.)  Sepals  5,  distinct 
or  united  at  base  ;  petals  much  longer  than  the  calyx  ;  styles  5,  capi- 
tate ;  dapsule  oblong  or  sub-globous  :  carpels  5,  1  to  several-seeded.  — 
Mostly  if,  with  trifoliate  Ivs.  and  inversely  heart-shaped  leaflets. 

1  O.  Acetocella  L.     Acaulescent  ;  scope  longer  than  the  leaves,  l-fi<naered  ;  Ifts. 
broad-obcordate  with  rounded  lobes  ;  sty.  as  long  as  tho  inner  stamens  ;  rt.  den- 
tate. scaly.  —  "Woods  and  shady  places,  Can.  and  Northern  States.     Lvs.  palmately 
3-foliate,  on  long,  weak  stalks,  purplish  beneath.     Fed.  longer  than  the  leave?, 
each  with  a  nodding,  scentless  flower  whose  petals  are  white,  yellowish  at  the  base, 
delicately  veined  with  purple.     The  whole  plant  has  an  agreeable  acid  taste.     Jn. 

2  O.  violacea  L.     Acaulescent,  smooth;  scape  umbeliferous  ;  pedicels,  subpubes- 
cent;  fls.  nodding;  tips  of  the  calyx  fleshy;    sty.  shorter  than  the  outer  sta- 
mens. —  An  elegant  species  in  rocky  woods,  etc.,   throughout  the  U.  S.     Bulb 
scaly.     Scape  nearly  twice  longer  than  the  leaves,  5  to  8'  high.     Lvs.  palmately 
3-foliate,  sometimes  none  ;  Ifts.  nearly  twice  as  wido  as  long,  with  a  very  shallow 
sinus  at  the  very  broad  apex.     Umbels  of  3  to  9  drooping  flowers.     Petals  large, 
violet-colored,  striate.     May. 

3  O.  strfcta  L.     Caulescent;  st.  branching;  ped.  umbeliferous,  longer  than  the 
petioles  ;  sty.  as  long  as  the  inner  stamens.  —  CD  Fields,  U.  S.  and  Can.,  common. 
It  varies  in  size  from  3  to  12',  according  to  tho  soil.     St.  leafy,  round,  smooth. 
succulent.     Lvs.  palmately  3-foliate,  numerous,  scattered,  on  long  stalks.     Um- 
bels on  long,  axillary  stalks,  mostly  much  longer  than  the  petioles.     Fls.  small. 
yellow,  appearing  all  summer.     Capsules  sparingly  hirsute,  with  spreading  hairs.— 
When  the  plant  is  unsupported,  it  is  more  or  less  decumbent,  and  is  the  variety 

J.  CORNICULATA  (0.  corniculata  L).  —  Obs.  The  species  (nearly  300  in  number) 
are  all  pretty,  and  many  from  Europe  and  Africa  are  becoming  rather  common 
in  cultivation. 

ORDER  XXXIII.     ZYGOPHYLLACE^E.     BEAN  CAPERS. 

Herbs,  shrubs  or  trees,  with  leaves  opposite,  mostly  pinnate  (not  dotted)  an«l 
stipulate  ;  flowers  4  or  5-rnerous,  calyx  imbricated  and  corolla  convolute  in  aestiva- 
tion. Stamens  twice  as  many  as  petals,  hypogynous,  distinct,  each  often  with  a 
scale.  Ovary  compound  ;  fruit  and  seeds  as  in  Linaceas. 


280  ORDER  35.— TROP^EOLACEJE. 

Genera  9,  species  100,  generally  diffused.  The  gum  resin  guiacum  is  derived  from  the  genus 
Ouiacum,  also  that  extremely  hard  and  heavy  wood,  lignum-vitce. 

KALLSTROEMIA,  Scop.  Sepals  5,  persistent;  petals  5;  stamens 
10,  with  no  scale,  the  5  opposite  the  sepals  defective,  placed  inside  5 
hypogynous  glands;  styles  united,  stigmas  10-lobed ;  fruit  at  length 
separating  into  10  1 -seeded  cocci. — (p  Prostrate  and  diffuse,  with 
interpetiolar  stipules  and  abruptly  pinnate  leaves. 

K.  maxima  Torr  &  Gr.  Lfts.  3  or  4  pairs,  oblong  or  oval,  slightly  falcate,  mucro- 
uate,  the  terminal  pair  largest ;  cocci  gibbous  at  base,  tubercled.  Waste  places, 
Savannah.  Sts.  pubescent,  1  to  2f  long.  FIs.  yellow,  axillary,  solitary,  pedun- 
culate. Jn. — Sept.  §  W.  Indies.  (Tribulus  maximus  L.) 

ORDER  XXXIV.     BALSAMINACEJL     JEWEL  WEEDS. 

Herbs  annual,  with  a  succulent  stem  and  watery  juice.*  Lvs.  simple,  without 
stipules.  FIs.  very  irregular  and  unsymmetrical.  Sepals  5,  deciduous,  the  2  upper 
connate,  the